Cited by 288Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances researchWater Treatment and DisinfectionFluoride Effects and Removal

Recently Detected Drinking Water Contaminants: GenX and Other Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Ether Acids

Hopkins, Zachary R., Sun, Mei, DeWitt, Jamie C., Knappe, Detlef R.U.·2018·Journal AWWA

Abstract

For several decades, a common processing aid in the production of fluoropolymers was the ammonium salt of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Because PFOA is persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic, its production and use are being phased out in the United States. In 2009, the US Environmental Protection Agency stipulated conditions for the manufacture and commercial use of GenX, a PFOA replacement. While GenX is produced for commercial purposes, the acid form of GenX is also generated as a byproduct during the production of fluoromonomers. The discovery of high concentrations of GenX and related perfluoroalkyl ether acids (PFEAs) in the Cape Fear River and in finished drinking water of more than 200,000 North Carolina residents required quick action by researchers, regulators, public health officials, commercial laboratories, drinking water providers, and consulting engineers. Information about sources and toxicity of GenX as well as an analytical method for the detection of GenX and eight related PFEAs is presented. GenX/PFEA occurrence in water and GenX/PFEA removal by different drinking water treatment processes are also discussed.

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Crossref · 10.1002/awwa.1073

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9 of 9 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Authors
Hopkins, Z. R., Sun, M., DeWitt, J. C., & Knappe, D. R. U.
Affiliations
  • North Carolina State University (US)
  • University of North Carolina at Charlotte (US)
  • East Carolina University (US)
Corresponding author
Knappe, Detlef R.U.
Venue
Journal AWWA
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2018-06-14
Volume
110
Issue
7
Pages
13-28
ISSN
  • 0003-150X (ISSN-L)
  • 1551-8833
OpenAlex
W2807913531
Cited by
288
References
9
Citations by year
2026: 36 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 1
FWCI
11.75
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
American Water Works Association (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Science Foundation (1550222)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
Keywords
GenX, drinking water contaminants, Cape Fear River, fluorinated polymers, PFAS regulation, North Carolina

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