Recently Detected Drinking Water Contaminants: GenX and Other Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Ether Acids
Abstract
For several decades, a common processing aid in the production of fluoropolymers was the ammonium salt of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Because PFOA is persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic, its production and use are being phased out in the United States. In 2009, the US Environmental Protection Agency stipulated conditions for the manufacture and commercial use of GenX, a PFOA replacement. While GenX is produced for commercial purposes, the acid form of GenX is also generated as a byproduct during the production of fluoromonomers. The discovery of high concentrations of GenX and related perfluoroalkyl ether acids (PFEAs) in the Cape Fear River and in finished drinking water of more than 200,000 North Carolina residents required quick action by researchers, regulators, public health officials, commercial laboratories, drinking water providers, and consulting engineers. Information about sources and toxicity of GenX as well as an analytical method for the detection of GenX and eight related PFEAs is presented. GenX/PFEA occurrence in water and GenX/PFEA removal by different drinking water treatment processes are also discussed.
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Perfluoroether compounds are poorly cleared by water treatment processes, including activated carbon, and the most effective method of removal is through source control.
“With regards to human exposure, it has been demonstrated that perfluoroether compounds are poorly cleared by water treatment processes, including activated carbon, and the most effective method of removal is through source control.(30,73)”
From Identification of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Cape Fear River by High Resolution Mass Spectrometry and Nontargeted Screening (2019) · cites this paper as [73]
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- Authors
- Hopkins, Z. R., Sun, M., DeWitt, J. C., & Knappe, D. R. U.
- Affiliations
- North Carolina State University (US)
- University of North Carolina at Charlotte (US)
- East Carolina University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Knappe, Detlef R.U.
- Venue
- Journal AWWA
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-06-14
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 13-28
- ISSN
- 0003-150X (ISSN-L)
- 1551-8833
- OpenAlex
- W2807913531
- Cited by
- 288
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 11.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- American Water Works Association (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1550222)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Keywords
- GenX, drinking water contaminants, Cape Fear River, fluorinated polymers, PFAS regulation, North Carolina
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