The DOI matches its Crossref record; 64 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 24 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline?
Open accessAbstract
Objective: This study aimed to examine the association of loneliness and social isolation on cognition over a 3‐year follow‐up period in middle‐ and older‐aged adults. Methods: Data from a Spanish nationally representative sample were analyzed (n = 1691; aged 50 years or older). Loneliness, social isolation, and cognition (immediate recall, delayed recall, verbal fluency, forward digit span, backward digit span, and a composite cognitive score) were assessed both at baseline and at follow‐up. Adjusted generalized estimating equations models were performed. Results: Loneliness was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, immediate and delayed recall, verbal fluency, and backward digit span (B = −0.14 to B = −3.16; P < .05) and with a more rapid decline from baseline to follow‐up in two out of six cognitive tests. Higher social isolation was associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, verbal fluency, and forward digit span (B = −0.06 to B = −0.85; P < .05). The effect of loneliness and social isolation on cognition remained significant after the exclusion of individuals with depression. Conclusions: Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with decreased cognitive function over a 3‐year follow‐up period. The development of interventions that include the enhancement of social participation and the maintenance of emotionally supportive relationships might contribute to cognitive decline prevention and risk reduction.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a Spanish nationally representative longitudinal sample of adults aged 50+, both loneliness and social isolation were associated with lower cognitive function over a 3-year follow-up. Loneliness also predicted a more rapid decline in composite cognition and backward digit span, while social isolation did not predict faster decline.
Key findings
- Loneliness was associated with lower scores on the composite cognitive score, immediate recall, delayed recall, verbal fluency, and backward digit span (B = −0.14 to −3.16; p < 0.05). In fully adjusted models, composite score B = −3.16 (95% CI −4.95, −1.37), immediate recall B = −0.83 (95% CI −1.29, −0.36), delayed recall B = −0.25 (95% CI −0.46, −0.03), verbal fluency B = −0.98 (95% CI −1.61, −0.34), and backward digit span B = −0.14 (95% CI −0.24, −0.04).
- Social isolation was associated with lower scores on the composite cognitive score, verbal fluency, and forward digit span (B = −0.06 to −0.85; p < 0.05). Fully adjusted estimates were composite B = −0.85 (95% CI −1.55, −0.14), verbal fluency B = −0.34 (95% CI −0.57, −0.11), and forward digit span B = −0.06 (95% CI −0.11, −0.02).
- Loneliness × time interactions were significant for composite cognitive score, delayed recall, forward digit span, and backward digit span (B = −0.01 to −0.11; p < 0.05), but pairwise comparisons showed significantly faster decline only for composite cognitive score and backward digit span. Social isolation × time was not statistically significant for any cognitive domain.
- Associations remained substantively similar after excluding individuals with depression.
Methods
- Longitudinal analysis of “Edad con Salud,” a nationally representative household survey in Spain; baseline was 2011–2012 and follow-up was 2014–2015. Final analytical sample was 1,691 respondents aged ≥50 years (mean age 64.5 years, SD 9.8; 52.8% women).
- Cognition was assessed with CERAD immediate and delayed word recall, animal naming verbal fluency, forward and backward digit span, and a composite cognitive score transformed to 0–100. Loneliness used the 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale, analyzed dichotomously with a cutoff of 6 and continuously as a percentile score. Social isolation used a 0–5 index based on marital/cohabiting status, contact with children, other family, friends, and organizational participation.
- Adjusted generalized estimating equations models were constructed stepwise; the fully adjusted model included time, gender, age, education, stroke, diabetes, physical activity, disability, alcohol consumption, and mutual adjustment for loneliness or social isolation. Interaction terms evaluated loneliness × time and social isolation × time; sensitivity analyses excluded depression and used continuous loneliness.
Limitations
- The paper states a short follow-up period reduced power to evaluate persistent loneliness and social isolation; artificial dichotomization of loneliness may bias estimates; the social isolation composite assigned equal weights to all components; reverse causality cannot be ruled out; and attrition bias may have led to underestimation of the true association.
- The paper also reports that excluded individuals were significantly older, had lower education, higher disability, lower alcohol consumption, higher loneliness and social isolation, and lower scores on all cognitive tests, consistent with attrition bias.
- Evident from the text: the study is observational, so causal direction cannot be established, and the authors note that some individuals with abnormal cognitive decline or dementia may have been included at baseline or follow-up.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Social isolation was associated with lower scores in composite cognitive score, verbal fluency and forward digit span (B=-0.06 to B=-0.85; p<0.05).”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
“Higher social isolation was also significantly related to decreased scores on composite cognitive score (B=-0.85;95% CI=-1.55,-0.14), verbal fluency (B=-0.34;95% CI=-0.57,-0.11) and forward digit span (B=-0.06;95% CI=-0.11,-0.02) in fully covariate-adjusted models (model 3).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The association between loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function after excluding of individuals with depression let to substantively similar results (Supplementary table 2).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Significant interactions effects were also observed for the composite cognitive score and backward digit span (data not shown).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The social isolation x time interaction did not reach statistical significance for any of the cognitive domains, suggesting that individuals with higher levels of social isolation did not show a faster rate of decline as compared with those less socially isolated.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Social isolation was associated with lower scores in composite cognitive score, verbal fluency and forward digit span (B=-0.06 to B=-0.85; p<0.05).”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
“Higher social isolation was also significantly related to decreased scores on composite cognitive score (B=-0.85;95% CI=-1.55,-0.14), verbal fluency (B=-0.34;95% CI=-0.57,-0.11) and forward digit span (B=-0.06;95% CI=-0.11,-0.02) in fully covariate-adjusted models (model 3).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Loneliness was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, immediate and delayed recall, verbal fluency and backward digit span (B=-0.14 to B=-3.16; p<0.05) and with a more rapid decline from baseline to follow-up in two out of six cognitive tests.”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
“After full adjustment for the covariates (model 3), loneliness was found to be associated with lower performance in composite cognitive score (B=-3.16;95% CI=-4.95,-1.37), immediate recall (B=-0.83;95% CI=-1.29,-0.36), delayed recall (B=-0.25;95% CI=-0.46,-0.03), verbal fluency (B=-0.98;95% CI=-1.61,-0.34) and backward digit span (B=-0.14;95% CI=-0.24,-0.04).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A significant loneliness x time effect was found in the composite cognitive score, delayed recall, forward and backward digit span, indicating that the rate of cognitive decline varied as a function of loneliness (B=-0.01 to B=-0.11; p<0.05).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Loneliness was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, immediate and delayed recall, verbal fluency and backward digit span (B=-0.14 to B=-3.16; p<0.05) and with a more rapid decline from baseline to follow-up in two out of six cognitive tests.”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
“After full adjustment for the covariates (model 3), loneliness was found to be associated with lower performance in composite cognitive score (B=-3.16;95% CI=-4.95,-1.37), immediate recall (B=-0.83;95% CI=-1.29,-0.36), delayed recall (B=-0.25;95% CI=-0.46,-0.03), verbal fluency (B=-0.98;95% CI=-1.61,-0.34) and backward digit span (B=-0.14;95% CI=-0.24,-0.04).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Loneliness was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognitive score, immediate and delayed recall, verbal fluency and backward digit span (B=-0.14 to B=-3.16; p<0.05) and with a more rapid decline from baseline to follow-up in two out of six cognitive tests.”
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
“After full adjustment for the covariates (model 3), loneliness was found to be associated with lower performance in composite cognitive score (B=-3.16;95% CI=-4.95,-1.37), immediate recall (B=-0.83;95% CI=-1.29,-0.36), delayed recall (B=-0.25;95% CI=-0.46,-0.03), verbal fluency (B=-0.98;95% CI=-1.61,-0.34) and backward digit span (B=-0.14;95% CI=-0.24,-0.04).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas higher levels of social isolation were not found in association with a faster rate of cognitive decline (data not shown).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 9
- Probably not a substantial claim. 18
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, no effect of social isolation on the remaining cognitive tests was found.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests? Asserted: unclear✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, we conducted sensitivity analysis using continuous scores of loneliness, which lead to comparable but not equivalent results to those of main analyses.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In sensitivity analyses using loneliness as a continuous variable, each additional unit increase in the UCLA loneliness scale was significantly associated with lower scores in the composite cognition score, immediate recall and verbal fluency in the fully covariate-adjusted model (Supplementary table 3).”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.2. The association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Previous studies have suggested that being alone or never married, low frequency of interactions, small social network size or negative experiences of social support predict steeper cognitive decline.[5][6][7][8]”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 1. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, we made use of family-reported dementia diagnosis and interviewers were trained to identify participants with severe cognitive function that precluded participation in the survey.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
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In the paper
“Cognitive function was assessed through the following five performance tests: word list immediate and delayed verbal recall from the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD); 35 digit span forward and backwards from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; 36 and the animal naming task.35”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 2.3.1. Cognitive function
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [35]
- Not checked yetcites [36]
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In the paper
“Loneliness was assessed by means of the Three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale.37”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 2.3.2. Loneliness
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] source
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In the paper
“For instance, findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing revealed that social isolation was related to decreased episodic memory and verbal fluency after a 4-year follow-up period, whereas loneliness was found to be associated with poorer immediate and delayed recall over time.17”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 1. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] source
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In the paper
“Furthermore, we used a set of cognitive tests assessing diverse core aspects of cognition, whereas other studies only included a brief screening cognitive instrument.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
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In the paper
“A social isolation index, based on the one proposed by Shankar et al. 39 was computed with respondents given a point if they: a) were not married/not cohabiting with a partner; b) had less than monthly contact with children; c) had less than monthly contact with other immediate family; d) had less than monthly contact with friends; and e) did not participate in any organizations, religious groups,”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 2.3.3. Social isolation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with decreased cognitive function over a 3-year follow-up period.”
- Also stated in: § KEY POINTS · plain
“Loneliness is associated with decreased cognitive function over a follow-up period”
- Also stated in: § KEY POINTS · plain
“Social isolation is related to decreased cognitive function”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
- Also stated in: § KEY POINTS · plain
In the paper
“Depression in the previous 12-months was assessed with an adapted version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI 3.0).44”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > Depression in the previous 12-months was assessed with an adapted version of the Composite
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [44] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Third, meaningful grouping was used to create a composite variable on social isolation with equal weights assigned to all index components.39”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The strengths of the study include the use of a large nationally-representative sample that allows for the simultaneous examination of multiple factors.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
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In the paper
“Fifth, attrition bias may exist, which might have led to an underestimation of the true association of loneliness and social isolation with cognitive function.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
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In the paper
“This may have affected our results on the association of social isolation with cognition, as some aspects of the social network may have more importance than others.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Studies that provided cognitive domain-specific results are scarce and have not accounted for the correlation between repeated measures on the same individual over time.10,17,32”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 1. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
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In the paper
“Excluded individuals were significantly older, had lower years of education and higher disability, reported lower alcohol consumption, higher feelings of loneliness and social isolation and scored lower on all of the cognitive tests.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 3.1. Sample characteristics
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In the paper
“However, our statistical approach allowed us to simultaneously explore predictors and outcomes at different time-points.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“By contrast, Wilson et al.21 using data from a longitudinal cohort study of 823 older adults, reported that loneliness was linked to a more rapid decline in semantic memory rather than episodic memory.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 1. INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed, previous studies have demonstrated that individuals with unmet social needs are more likely to be frequent users of health care services.67”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.3. Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67]
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this regard, it is possible that some individuals with abnormal cognitive decline or even dementia may have been included in our study during the baseline or the follow-up assessments.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, our analyses included individuals aged 50+ years in order to capture the potential prodromal phase of neurocognitive disorders.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
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In the paper
“Fourth, a potential reverse causal direction cannot be ruled out.”
§ Are loneliness and social isolation associated with cognitive decline? Evidence from a longitudinal population-based study > 4.2. Strengths and limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Time has a linear relationship with cognitive change.
“Time was added as a continuous variable coded as months, assuming a linear relationship with time (model 1).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Social isolation and loneliness negatively impact mental health in older adults and may predispose to cognitive decline.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Social isolation is described as unchanged despite a significant test result
MinorThe results say social isolation remained unchanged at follow-up, but Table 2 reports p=0.033 for the baseline-to-follow-up difference. The identical displayed means may reflect rounding, but the reported test indicates a statistically significant change.
“Likewise, the level of social isolation remained unchanged at follow-up.”
“| Social isolation (0-5) | 1.9 (1) | 1.9 (1) | 0.033 |”
Model 3 adjustment for depression differs between methods and table note
MinorThe methods state that model 3 was adjusted for depression, while the Table 3 note lists its adjustment variables without depression. These give conflicting descriptions of the reported model.
“In a third step, GEE models were further adjusted for level of physical activity, alcohol consumption, ADL limitations, stroke, diabetes, depression, and mutually adjusted for loneliness or social isolation (model 3).”
“§ Model 3 adjusted for time, gender, age, years of education, stroke, diabetes, physical activity, disability, alcohol consumption, and loneliness or social isolation as appropriate.”
Citations
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Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models
LIANG, K.-Y., & ZEGER, S. L. (1986) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/73.1.13 · Cited by 18,550
Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms
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“Social isolation relates to structural aspects of the social network (eg, low frequency of interactions and small size of the social network),(3) whereas loneliness refers to a distressing perceived discrepancy between one's social desires and one's actual interactions with others.(4) Over the past decade, the study o…”
BackgroundGlobal Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ): Nine Country Reliability and Validity Study
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Research works printed but not linked: 3
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- World Health Organization, 2012, Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ): analysis guide
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Metadata
- Authors
- Lara, E., Caballero, F. F., Rico‐Uribe, L. A., Olaya, B., Haro, J. M., Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L., & Miret, M.
- Affiliations
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ES)
- Department of Psychiatry Universidad Autónoma de Madrid Madrid Spain
- Corresponding author
- Miret, Marta
- ORCID
- Venue
- International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-07-25
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 1613-1622
- ISSN
- 0885-6230 (ISSN-L)
- 1099-1166
- OpenAlex
- W2961148372
- Semantic Scholar
- 217effd0500cf34d704dcdbed6b4ee476a5ab3f1
- Cited by
- 423
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 125 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 24.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Biblos-e Archivo (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) (submittedVersion)
- Hispana (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PS09/00295, PS09/01845, PI12/01490, PI13/00059)
- Seventh Framework Programme (223071)
- European Commission (PI13/00059, PI12/01490)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental
- Generalitat de Catalunya (SLT006/17/00066)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- loneliness, social isolation, cognitive decline, cognitive function, middle-aged and older adults, verbal fluency, memory retrieval, digit span, social participation (health and rehabilitation), emotional support, depression
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Female, Humans, Loneliness, Male, Middle Aged, Mental Recall, Social Isolation, Spain, Verbal Learning, Cognitive Dysfunction
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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