Sex differences in personality are larger in gender equal countries: Replicating and extending a surprising finding
Open accessAbstract
Sex differences in personality have been shown to be larger in more gender equal countries. We advance this research by using an extensive personality measure, the IPIP‐NEO‐120, with large country samples ( N > 1000), from 22 countries. Furthermore, to capture the multidimensionality of personality we measure sex differences with a multivariate effect size (Mahalanobis distance D ). Results indicate that past research, using univariate measures of effect size, have underestimated the size of between‐country sex differences in personality. Confirming past research, there was a strong correlation ( r = .69) between a country's sex differences in personality and their Gender Equality Index. Additional analyses showed that women typically score higher than men on all five trait factors (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness), and that these relative differences are larger in more gender equal countries. We speculate that as gender equality increases both men and women gravitate towards their traditional gender roles.
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After controlling for language regions, all personality studies (1-3) had negative correlations between gender equality and gender differences, with rs = −0.79 to −0.88 and ps < 0.002.
“After controlling for language regions, all personality studies (1–3) had negative correlations between gender equality and gender differences (rs = −0.79 to −0.88, ps < 0.002).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The Results report a positive correlation between gender equality and the magnitude of sex differences in personality (r = .69, p < .001), contrary to the claimed negative correlations. The paper does not report the stated range of r values or an analysis controlling for language regions. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the causal interpretation of GEP, gender equality or a related variable is held responsible for the magnitude of gender differences across countries.
“The variable to explain is the magnitude of gender differences across countries and the variable responsible is gender equality (or some related variable).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The Discussion reports that gender equality is associated with the magnitude of cross-country sex differences in personality, and offers a possible explanation for that pattern. It also says the exact reason remains unknown, so the paper does not establish that gender equality—or a related variable—causes those differences. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGender equality, like gender differences, is multidimensional, and GEP-studies tend to measure equality and differences along different dimensions, which should weaken relationships between variables.
“A further potential issue in GEP-studies is that gender equality, like gender differences, is multidimensional, and that GEP-studies tend to measure equality and differences along different dimensions (see (1–6))—which should weaken relationships between variables.”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The Gender Gap Index section describes an equality measure spanning economic, political, educational and health criteria; the Abstract and Discussion describe personality differences as multidimensional. The paper thus exemplifies measuring equality and differences in different domains, but it does not establish that GEP studies generally tend to do so or that this weakens relationships between variables. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe gender-equality paradox refers to the result that places, often operationalized as countries, with more gender equality exhibit larger gender differences on certain measures.
“The gender-equality paradox (GEP) refers to the result that places (often operationalized as countries) with more gender equality exhibit larger gender differences* on certain measures (1–6).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
Many scholars interpret GEP findings with a causal lens.
“Scholars vary in how they explain such paradoxes, but many interpret the findings with a causal lens (for 1–6), this interpretation is more prevalent in (1, 2, 4, 5); see SI Appendix, section 1.1 for more details): The variable to explain is the magnitude of gender differences across countries and the variable responsible is gender equality (or some related variable).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The prime evidence for the GEP is based on correlations across countries.
“The prime evidence for the GEP is based on correlations across countries (1–6, 32).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The Gosling-Potter Internet Personality Project data have, to our knowledge, not been used in GEP studies previously, although they consist of the probably largest cross-cultural dataset of personality, with over 9,000,000 participants, the greatest number of countries (k = 131) and the largest samples per country to date.
“These data have, to our knowledge, not been used in GEP studies previously, although they consist of the probably largest cross-cultural dataset of personality, with over 9,000,000 participants, the greatest number of countries (k = 131) and the largest samples per country to date (we used 1,000 participants as cut-off for including countries, as used in 2).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
When data quality and gender equality were entered in the same model, gender equality became clearly and borderline nonsignificant in two studies (2 and ESS).
“When data quality and gender equality were entered in the same model, gender equality became (clearly and borderline) nonsignificant in two studies (2; and ESS).”
From Simpson’s gender-equality paradox (2025) · cites this paper as [2]
The Results report a significant correlation between gender equality and sex differences in personality, but do not report a model that includes data quality. Searches for a joint model and for ESS and Study 2 found no passage giving the claimed nonsignificant results. The reported correlation alone cannot establish what happened when both predictors were entered together. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn contrast to popular belief, the largest sex/gender differences in psychological constructs in the general population, and possibly neurodevelopmental conditions, are reported in egalitarian, high-income countries.
“For instance, in contrast to popular belief, the largest sex/gender differences in psychological constructs in the general population, and possibly neurodevelopmental conditions, are reported in egalitarian, high-income countries318.”
From Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions (2023) · cites this paper as [318]
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“…in how they explain such paradoxes, but many interpret the findings with a causal lens (for 1 – 6 ), this interpretation is more prevalent in ( 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 ); see SI Appendix , section 1.1 for more details): The variable to explain is the magnitude of gender differences across countries and the…”
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Mozafari, A. R., & Xu, X. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.029 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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At the Crossroads of Women’s Experience
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Physical and psychosocial correlates of facial attractiveness.
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Sex/Gender Differences in the Brain and their Relationship to Behavior
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- Authors
- Mac Giolla, E., & Kajonius, P. J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Psychology University of Gothenburg Gothenburg Sweden
- University West (SE)
- ORCID
- Kajonius, Petri J.
- Venue
- International Journal of Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-09-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 705-711
- ISSN
- 0020-7594 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-066X
- OpenAlex
- W2891670863
- Semantic Scholar
- c583dfd2e373bd67304b35781f1b54879a8c7e01
- Cited by
- 217
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 9
- FWCI
- 29.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- public-domain
- onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
- Locations
- International Journal of Psychology (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- sex differences in personality, gender equality, cross-national comparison, Mahalanobis distance, Big Five personality traits, gender equality index, traditional gender roles, replication
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Personality Inventory, Sex Characteristics, Young Adult
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