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Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: a practice-friendly meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Do positive psychology interventions-that is, treatment methods or intentional activities aimed at cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviors, or positive cognitions-enhance well-being and ameliorate depressive symptoms? A meta-analysis of 51 such interventions with 4,266 individuals was conducted to address this question and to provide practical guidance to clinicians. The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r=.29) and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r=.31). In addition, several factors were found to impact the effectiveness of positive psychology interventions, including the depression status, self-selection, and age of participants, as well as the format and duration of the interventions. Accordingly, clinicians should be encouraged to incorporate positive psychology techniques into their clinical work, particularly for treating clients who are depressed, relatively older, or highly motivated to improve. Our findings also suggest that clinicians would do well to deliver positive psychology interventions as individual (versus group) therapy and for relatively longer periods of time.
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TL;DR
This meta-analysis of 51 positive psychology interventions with 4,266 participants found that such interventions significantly improved well-being and reduced depressive symptoms. Effects were medium-sized and moderated by participant and intervention features, supporting clinical use especially for depressed, older, self-selected clients and individual, longer formats.
Key findings
- Across 49 well-being studies (4,235 participants), the mean effect size was r = .29 (median .24; range −.31 to .84; 96% positive), significant in fixed- and random-effects models; the fail-safe N was 2,519 versus a tolerance level of 255.
- Across 25 depression studies (1,812 participants), the mean effect size was r = .31 (median .26; range −.28 to .81; 80% favoring the intervention), significant in both models; the fail-safe N was 420 versus a tolerance level of 135.
- Moderators: depressed status and self-selection predicted greater benefit in fixed-effects analyses only; older age predicted greater benefit in both models; individual therapy outperformed group and self-administered formats in both models; longer duration predicted greater well-being gains in fixed effects (random-effects p = .09) but not depression; comparison group type moderated well-being in fixed effects only.
- A binomial effect size display indicated that in a hypothetical group of 200, 65 intervention recipients versus 35 controls would improve well-being, and 66 versus 34 would reduce depression.
Methods
- Meta-analysis of English-language positive psychology intervention studies from 1977–2008. Inclusion required an intervention aimed at increasing positive feelings, behaviors, or cognitions; pre- and post-intervention well-being or depression measures; a comparison group; and effect-size information. Physical health/physical activity and mood-induction studies were excluded.
- Coded moderators included depression status, age, self-selection, intervention format, duration, and comparison group type. Effect sizes were computed as r from d, F, t, p, or descriptive statistics; multiple measures were averaged via Fisher Z transformations.
- Analyses used fixed- and random-effects models, Stouffer-combined significance tests, one-sample t-tests on mean Fisher Z effects, fail-safe N and tolerance estimates, chi-square heterogeneity tests, and contrast/correlation tests for moderators.
Limitations
- The authors state that the meta-analysis is not exhaustive and that moderator findings cannot be interpreted causally because studies were not randomly assigned to moderator levels. They also note likely file-drawer bias for well-being, though the fail-safe N exceeded the tolerance level.
- Evident from the text: the review is limited to English-language studies from 1977–2008 and samples adjacent literatures (e.g., mindfulness, life review, forgiveness), which may restrict generalizability. Fixed- and random-effects models disagreed for some moderators (depression status, self-selection, and comparison group type for well-being), and older adults could not be analyzed for depression because too few studies were available.
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In the paper
“For depression, however, the moderating effect of intervention duration was not significant based on both the fixed effects and random effects models.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individuals who elected to participate in a PPI-perhaps expecting that the intervention would make them happier or less depressed-were more likely to experience greater gains in WB and depression compared with their non-self-selected counterparts, based on the fixed effects model.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Participant Moderators
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r 5 .29)and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r 5 .31).”
- Also stated in: § Depression · boosted
“The unweighted mean r of .31 was close to the median r (.26) and was highly significant based on both the fixed effects (one-tailed p 5 2 Â 10 À12 ) and the random effects (one-tailed p 5 .0001)models.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression? · boosted
“The combined results of 49 studies revealed that PPIs do, in fact, significantly enhance WB, and the combined results of 25 studies showed that PPIs are also effective for treating depressive symptoms.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Depression · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there were not enough studies to include the ''older adult'' group in the moderator analysis for depression, the other age groups nevertheless showed larger decreases in depression as a linear function of age.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Participant Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depressed individuals benefited more from PPIs than nondepressed individuals, according to the fixed effects moderator analysis.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Participant Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The type of comparison group did not have a moderating effect on shifts in depression, based on both the fixed effects and the random effects models.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“In addition, causal conclusions cannot be drawn regarding the moderators because the studies were not randomly assigned to particular moderator levels (Rosenthal, 1991b, p. 81).”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Rosenthal, 1991b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several studies have found that exerting high levels of effort to practice a happiness-boosting strategy, and continuing to practice it even after the intervention is over, results in greater improvements in WB and depression (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al., 2008;Seligman et al., 2005).”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyubomirsky et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Seligman et al., 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that participation in PPIs may be more effective for relieving depression than participation in a no-treatment control group, placebo activity, or treatment as usual.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The file drawer problem was unlikely to threaten the significant results, given that the fail-safe N was 420, which exceeded the tolerance level of 135.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedn = 1,812Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: The number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published studies.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 1
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intervention format had a significant moderating effect on the effectiveness of PPIs, based on both the fixed effects and the random effects models.Specifically, the mean r effect size was greatest for individual therapy, followed by group-administered PPIs, then self-administered PPIs.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, as in the case of well-being, the set of effect sizes was heterogeneous”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, studies that compared a PPI to a notreatment control group showed the greatest boost in WB.Positive interventions that were compared with ''treatment as usual'' showed the second greatest benefit, suggesting that PPIs may be more effective than standard treatments.Finally, PPIs also produced greater boosts in WB compared with neutral control and placebo activities.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fixed effects analysis revealed that the type of comparison group used in a PPI moderated the gains in WB but not when computed using the random effects analysis.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longer interventions produced greater gains in WB based on the fixed effects model, and this effect approached significance according to the random effects model (one-tailed p 5 .09).”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Methodological Moderators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the set of effect sizes was heterogeneous (w 2 ð48Þ ¼ 230:92, one-tailed p 5 9 Â 10 À26 ), suggesting the presence of moderator variables.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Well-Being
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both the fixed effects and random effects models revealed that the benefits of PPIs increase with age.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Participant Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results revealed that positive psychology interventions do indeed significantly enhance well-being (mean r 5 .29)and decrease depressive symptoms (mean r 5 .31).”
- Also stated in: § Well-Being · plain
“The unweighted mean r (.29) was close in magnitude to the median r (.24) and was highly significant based on both the fixed effects (one-tailed p 5 0) and the random effects (one-tailed p 5 4 Â 10 À9 ) models.”
- Also stated in: § Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression? · boosted
“The combined results of 49 studies revealed that PPIs do, in fact, significantly enhance WB, and the combined results of 25 studies showed that PPIs are also effective for treating depressive symptoms.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § Well-Being · plain
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Please bear in mind that these findings should be interpreted cautiously, as this meta-analysis is not comprehensive (i.e., does not include all PPI studies ever conducted).”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“PPIs can be especially effective for treating residual symptoms (Fava et al., 1998) and preventing future relapse for formerly depressed clients (Seligman et al., 2006).”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a hypothetical group of 200 individuals-half the group treated with a PPI, and half the group untreated-65 individuals treated with a PPI would experience gains in WB, compared with only 35 of the individuals in the control group.Similarly, 66 PPI-treated individuals would experience decreased depression, relative to only 34 individuals in the control group.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of these effects is medium-sized (mean r 5 .29 for WB, mean r 5 .31for depression), indicating that not only do PPIs work, they work well.”
§ Enhancing Well-Being and Alleviating Depressive Symptoms With Positive Psychology Interventions: A Practice-Friendly Meta-Analysis m > Clinical Practices Do positive psychology interventions effectively boost well-being and ameliorate depression?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
The number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published studies.
“The tolerance level was also computed to estimate the number of irretrievable studies that possibly exist, based on the assumption that the number of unpublished studies is not five times greater than the number of published ones (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008, p. 689).”
The paper relies on this without support.
No systematic quantitative review of positive psychology intervention research had been published before this meta-analysis.
“The general effectiveness of PPIs remains unclear, as no systematic quantitative review of the research has yet been published.”
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“The lack of clarity in the inclusion criteria constitutes a third limitation.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Their results show that PPIs can indeed be effective in enhancing well-being (r = 0.29, standardized mean difference Cohen’s d = 0.61) and help to reduce depressive symptom levels in clinical populations (r = 0.31, Cohen’s d = 0.65).”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The practice of mindfulness has been found to enhance various qualities including empathy and self-compassion (Birnie et al., 2009), wellbeing and positive emotions (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), emotional self-regulation and cognitive flexibility, and reduce stress and anxiety (Hölzel et al., 2011;Meiklejohn et al., 2012).”
From The influence of teacher-guided mindfulness practice on inter and intra-personal abilities among Israeli Arab students (2024) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Several meta-analyses have shown that positive psychology interventions targeting feelings of gratitude, savoring of experiences and sensations, and hope and meaning lead to improved well-being and reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms in both general populations and those considered vulnerable [73-75].”
From Optimization of a Transdiagnostic Mobile Emotion Regulation Intervention for University Students: Protocol for a Microrandomized Trial (2023) · cites this paper as [75]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Meta-analytic reviews of positive psychological interventions designed to cultivate well-being have demonstrated that these interventions can not only have robust effects on increasing well-being, they can also decrease associated depressive symptoms (Sin & Lyubmirksy, 2009).”
From Trajectories of change in well-being during cognitive behavioral therapies for anxiety disorders: Quantifying the impact and covariation with improvements in anxiety (2020) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubmirksy, 2009
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Intervention studies, although related to positive psychology but not strictly developed within this new framework (e.g. mindfulness, life-review) were included in the meta-analysis.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Their results show that PPIs can indeed be effective in enhancing well-being (r = 0.29, standardized mean difference Cohen’s d = 0.61) and help to reduce depressive symptom levels in clinical populations (r = 0.31, Cohen’s d = 0.65).”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Second, study quality was not addressed as a potential effect moderator.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In addition, we applied stricter inclusion criteria than those used by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) and therefore did not include studies on any related areas such as mindfulness and life review therapy.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Remarkably, effect sizes in the current meta-analysis are around 0.3 points lower than the effect sizes in the meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) [37].”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009) [37]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Two meta-analyses of PPIs for depression and well-being found that these interventions have small to moderate effects in enhancing well-being and decreasing depressive symptoms and that effects are stronger for individual vs. group formats [30, 31].”
From Skills to Enhance Positivity in adolescents at risk for suicide: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2023) · cites this paper as [30]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“They are effective in the improvement of depression and well-being [36, 37].”
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis that reviewed 51 positive psychology interventions across a spectrum of domains, found that positive psychology programs significantly increased well-being (mean r=.29) [29] and led to significant reductions in depressive symptoms (mean r=.31).”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [29]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis that reviewed 51 positive psychology interventions across a spectrum of domains, found that positive psychology programs significantly increased well-being (mean r=.29) [29] and led to significant reductions in depressive symptoms (mean r=.31).”
From Feasibility and effectiveness of a web-based positive psychology program for youth mental health: Randomized controlled trial (2014) · cites this paper as [29]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“First, the meta-analysis included both randomized studies and quasi-experimental studies.”
From Positive psychology interventions: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies (2013) · cites this paper as Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Vlaeyen and colleagues suggest that avoidance behavior persists due to certain beliefs, such as catastrophic cognitions 25, 337, 338.”
From Evaluating psychosocial contributions to chronic pain outcomes (2018) · cites this paper as [338]
In the citing paper
“The efficacy of PPIs increased linearly with participant age, and depressed individuals benefitted more than non-depressed individuals252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis of PPIs including data from over four thousand adults indicated a highly significant, moderate effect of PPIs on both well-being (r = 0.29) and depressive symptoms (r = 0.31)252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“The efficacy of PPIs increased linearly with participant age, and depressed individuals benefitted more than non-depressed individuals252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“Interventions delivered individually were most effective, followed by those administered in a group, then by self-administered PPIs.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis of PPIs including data from over four thousand adults indicated a highly significant, moderate effect of PPIs on both well-being (r = 0.29) and depressive symptoms (r = 0.31)252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“Although PPIs are not recommended as a stand-alone treatment for moderate-to-severe MDD, research suggests that PPIs may be useful for the prevention or adjunct treatment of depression252.”
From Psychobiological factors of resilience and depression in late life (2019) · cites this paper as [252]
In the citing paper
“A meta-analysis established that positive psychology interventions as diverse as writing gratitude letters, practising optimistic thinking, replaying positive experiences and socializing have beneficial effects on levels of depression 91.”
From Resilience in mental health: linking psychological and neurobiological perspectives. (2013) · cites this paper as [91]
In the citing paper
“The effect of kindness is small-to-mediumcomparable to other positive psychology interventions (such as 'mindfulness', 'positive thinking' and 'counting your blessings'; d = 0.34, Bolier et al., 2013;d = 0.31, Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009;d = 0.44, Weiss, Westerhof, & Bohlmeijer, 2016).”
From Happy to help? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of performing acts of kindness on the well-being of the actor (2018) · cites this paper as Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009
In the citing paper
“Interventions that explicitly target positive emotion show promise for improving health outcomes in a number of chronic illnesses, including diabetes [16,17], heart disease [18,19], hypertension [20,21], depression [22,23], and HIV [24].”
In the citing paper
“interventions based on increasing positive emotion have been shown to relieve symptoms of depression in a meta-analysis [23]”
In the citing paper
“Positive psychology (PP) interventions, which utilize systematic exercises to increase optimism, well-being, and positive affect, consistently increase positive states and are easily delivered to patients with chronic illnesses.”
From Positive Psychological Interventions for Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Rationale, Theoretical Model, and Intervention Development (2015) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“PP interventions have been used in over 4000 mostly healthy subjects and have been found to increase well-being and decrease depression [41, 43], with effect sizes comparable to other psychological interventions [44, 45].”
From Positive Psychological Interventions for Patients with Type 2 Diabetes: Rationale, Theoretical Model, and Intervention Development (2015) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“moderation analysis revealed higher effect sizes associated with “shotgun” approaches, that is, packages that incorporate multiple positive psychology strategies.”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that compared with control conditions, positive interventions lead to reliable and moderate boosts in well-being and improvements in depressive symptoms [23].”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Past research in positive psychology interventions has found that variety is an important moderator of intervention gains and that several techniques are more effective than a single technique [23,36].”
From Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial (2012) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“Studies supporting the efficacy of positive activity interventions (PAIs) have been primarily conducted in unselected (non-clinical) community samples and examined single positive activities in isolation (for a meta-analysis, see66, 67).”
From Upregulating the positive affect system in anxiety and depression: Outcomes of a positive activity intervention: Taylor et al. (2017) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“Overall, PP exercises have been successfully used by more than 4000 participants in over 50 clinical trials [20,21], though typically in nonclinical populations.”
From Feasibility and utility of positive psychology exercises for suicidal inpatients (2014) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“These differences may be related to the fact that the first meta-analyses focused on subjective well-being whereas the second one included 10 different measures of psychological well-being in addition to the PWBS and MHC-SF, for example hope, mastery and purpose in life.”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, both previous meta-analyses focused on specific positive psychological interventions, whereas our study included a number of different therapeutic interventions.”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“The effect size of psychological well-being is somewhat lower than the standardized mean difference of .61 that was reported in a meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (11) and somewhat higher than the effect of .20 for psychological well-being in a meta-analysis by Bolier et al. [12].”
From Can We Increase Psychological Well-Being? The Effects of Interventions on Psychological Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“Positive psychology interventions (PPIs), such as mindful self-awareness, gratitude expression, and identifying and utilizing strengths, have been shown to impact both well-being and depressive symptoms [29-31].”
From MoodHacker Mobile Web App With Email for Adults to Self-Manage Mild-to-Moderate Depression: Randomized Controlled Trial (2016) · cites this paper as [29]
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Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Della Porta M.D., 2008, Searching for the placebo effect in happiness‐enhancing interventions: An experimental longitudinal study with depressed and nondepressed participants
- *Lyubomirsky S. Dickerhoof R. Boehm J.K. &Sheldon K.M.(2008).Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way: Two experimental longitudinal interventions to boost well‐being. Manuscript under review.
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Wie hängen Lebenskunst und Glück zusammen?
Schumacher, B., & Lautz-Schön, A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-55251-3_6
Seeking Understanding on the Issue of Happiness: A Hermeneutic Literature Review
Petersen, M. (2017) · Tuwhera (Auckland University of Technology)
Freire, T., Teixeira, A. S., Silva, E., & Matias, G. P. (2015)
de Manincor, & Michael, J. (2017)
Positive Education at The Shipley School
Aljneibi, N. M., Chung, C., Glass, A., Li, K., & Wolf, A. (2018) · ScholarlyCommons (University of Pennsylvania)
Promoting Wellbeing Through Positive Psychology
Hassan, M., & MUHAMMAD, Y. (2016) · i-manager’s Journal on Nursing · doi:10.26634/jnur.5.4.4815
Poetics of the [Selves]∞: An Active Aesthetic
Tunprasert-Ahrens, A. (2018) · IRL - University of Missouri, St. Louis (University of Missouri–St. Louis)
Carretero, A. D., & Serrano, B. (2018) · Àgora de salut · doi:10.6035/agorasalut.2018.5.12
Sessions, Practices, and the Therapeutic Process
Rashid, T., & Seligman, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780195325386.003.0006
The Centrality of Character Strengths and How to Use Them in Positive Psychotherapy
Rashid, T., & Seligman, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780195325386.003.0004
Positive Interventions and Theoretical Assumptions
Rashid, T., & Seligman, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780195325386.003.0002
ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND QUALITY OF LIFE: IMPLICATIONS FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS
Malkina-Pykh, I. G., & PYKH, Y. A. (2018) · WIT transactions on ecology and the environment · doi:10.2495/eid180281
Wellbeing begins with "we" not "me" psychosocial benefits of gratitude interventions
O’Connell, B. H. (2016) · University of Limerick Institutional Repository (University of Limerick) · doi:10.34961/7943
Tomasulo, D. J. (2018) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5918-4.ch005
Góngora, V. C. (2018) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v14i4.1546
“These interventions showed to have small to moderate effect sizes to increase well-being and life satisfaction as well as to reduce depressive symptoms (Bolier et al., 2013; Schrank, Brownell, Tylee, & Slade, 2014; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009).”
BackgroundThe Patient’s Call Versus the Patient’s Well Being
Hussain, A. M. (2018) · TAJ Journal of Teachers Association · doi:10.3329/taj.v30i2.39129
Neurobiology of Pain: A Humanistic Perspective
Brumovsky, P. R., McCarthy, C. J., Malet, M., & Villar, M. J. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95360-1_3
DiMenichi, B. C. (2018) · doi:10.7282/t35q50hh
Effects of Mental Fitness Positive Psychology Program for Improvement of Adjustment to Military Life
Kim, M., Kim, H., & Ko, Y.-G. (2017) · Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.24230/kjiop.v30i2.275-298
Persons, Selves, and Wellbeing
Moore, K. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15643-5_4
Schick, M. R. (2019) · doi:10.23860/thesis-schick-melissa-2019
“…interventions have been used as an effective treatment to target negative emotionality and increase subjective well-being (Bolier et al., 2013; Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), and may be well-suited to provide college students who are drinking to cope with alternative methods of coping with…”
MethodNeed for Cognition, subjektives Wohlbefinden und akademisches Selbstkonzept bei Grundschulkindern
Andronie, M., & Wildemann, A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-26231-0_28
Robles, V. A. G. (2019) · Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (Consorci de Serveis Universitaris de Catalunya) · doi:10.6035/14109.2019.233592
Giving Positive Psychology Interventions Depth: A Jungian Approach
du Toit, D. H., & du Toit, S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20583-6_17
Early-Life Contributors to Child Well-Being
Lifschitz, C. H., & Lin, W. (2019) · Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1159/000499153
Collaborative pursuit of flourishing
Pahil, R. (2019) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
The Best Possible Self Intervention: Evidence for Its Efficacy in Multi-cultural Contexts
Molinari, G., Enrique, Á., Dragomir-Davis, M., & Botella, C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20311-5_11
Díaz‐García, A., González‐Robles, A., Fernández‐Álvarez, J., Castilla, D., Mira, A., Bretón-López, J. M., García‐Palacios, A., & Botella, C. (2019) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25872-6_11 · Cited by 1
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Addressing the Need for Anger Management in Young People
Heasley, T. (2019) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-0319-5.ch003
Do Daily Thoughts About Social Experiences Promote Health and Well-Being?
Major, B. (2017) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/1spp-4v14
Rozwój w kierunku szczęścia w psychologii pozytywnej : trening sił charakteru a dobrostan człowieka
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Pham, D. V. H. (2016) · HIMALAYA
Henderson, K. (2019) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University)
Positive Interventions in Depression
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LeBlanc, N. J. (2019) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)
Food for thought: The role of ethical eating in mental health
Pande, P. (2019)
Wright, R. C., Salles, A., Lin, D. T., & Mueller, C. M. (2020) · Success in academic surgery · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29470-0_20
Lang, A. J., & Gallagher, M. W. (2020) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103590
Positive psychology and its importance in Second Language Acquisition
Budzińska, K. (2023) · Kwartalnik Neofilologiczny · doi:10.24425/kn.2019.129913 · Cited by 1
Vescovelli, F. (2020) · Online Journal of Complementary & Alternative Medicine · doi:10.33552/ojcam.2019.03.000569
“Further, there has been an increased focus on implementing positive interventions in clinical settings and in combination with existing psychotherapeutic strategies, such as cognitive behavioural therapy [27,28].”
Backgroundالوجود النفسی الممتلئ للأطفال وعلاقته باضطرابات السلوک لدیهم
عمــار, ط. س. ح. (2020) · مجلة الإرشاد النفسی · doi:10.21608/cpc.2020.110298
Positive education as a whole school approach: broadening the perspective on learning
Goldberg, J. M. (2020) · doi:10.3990/1.9789036549622 · Cited by 1
“…promote well-being can be explicitly taught through the implementation of positive psychology programmes, activities and practices aimed a cultivating positive feelings, positive behaviour or positive cognitions (Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009; Norrish and Vella-Brodrick, 2009; Seligman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialder Linde, E.-K. V. (2019) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa)
Mindfulness, Meditation, and Yoga
Budd, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.028
Work, Love, Play, and Joie de Vivre
Groningen, N. V., IsHak, W. W., Ganjian, S., Ong, M. K., & Slusser, W. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.045
Acupuncture, Herbs, and Ayurvedic Medicine
Postolov, L., & Gilberg-Lenz, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.031
Circadian Rhythm in the Digital Age
Ezzat-Velinov, M., & Guarneri, M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.035
Chaudhry, M., Gordon, A., Tadros, E., Sun, C., Tobia, G., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.019
The Personalized Wellness Life Plan
IsHak, W. W., Bart, R., Gohar, Y., Lorea, N., Eskander, L., Chang, T., Cohen, S., Furman, K., Nayyar, P. P., & DeBonis, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.050
Exercise, Dance, Tai Chi, Pilates, and Alexander Technique
Altug, Z. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.025
Louy, C., Sweet, C., Pollock, G. A., de Zagon, C., Louy, Z., Weiss, J. M., & Maher, D. P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.017
Pharmaceuticals and Alternatives for Wellness
Parisi, T., Heath, B., Wen, R. Y., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.024
Bucciarelli, A., Ellison, G. K., Sommer, E. K., & Spooner, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.036
Screening and Assessment Methods for Wellness
Greenberg, J. M., Castillo, E. G., IsHak, W. W., & Wells, K. B. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.002
The Role of Leisure, Recreation, and Play in Health and Well-Being
Payne, L. L., & An, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.048
Positive Neuropsychology, Cognitive Rehabilitation, and Neuroenhancement
Pimental, P. A., O'Hara, J. B., Christopher, J., & Ciampanelli, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.030
Wellness in Children and Adolescents
Zanko, C., & Stuber, M. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.016
Connection, Compassion, and Community
Hedrick, R., & Jones, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.043
Wellness Interventions for Chronicity and Disability
Klimowicz, A., Schussel, L., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.044
Mays, A. M., Whiteman, E., & Rosen, S. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.015
Family Relations, Friendships, and Love
Alsup, S., Weisbaum, E., Vogel, T., & Siegel, D. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.047 · Cited by 1
Developing Purpose, Meaning, and Achievements
Vilhauer, J. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.041
Sleep, Rest, and Relaxation in Improving Wellness
Ngor, A., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.026
The Biopsychosocial Assessment
Somjee, L., & Esbitt, S. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.003 · Cited by 1
Wellness and the Genito-Urinary System
EILBER, K. S., & Lee, U. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.010
Marin, K., Tobia, G., Bakhoum, A., Naghdechi, L., Korouri, S., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.027
Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Wellness
IsHak, W. W., & Herrera, N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.008
Wellness in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders
Clevenger, S., Eskander, L., Lin, T. Y., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.013
The Concept of Wellness in Psychiatric and Substance-Use Disorders
Awad, A. G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.006
Wellness and Whole-Person Care
Hutchinson, T. A., & Hutchinson, N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.049
Herrera, N., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.040
Wellness in Cancer and Neoplastic Diseases
Bashmi, L., & IsHak, W. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.018
Wellness Interventions for Physicians and Healthcare Professionals
Goldenberg, M., & Danovitch, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.021
Neurological and Neurosurgical Disorders and Wellness
Ding, K., & Yang, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.007
Gastrointestinal System and Wellness
Robbins, L., & Feldman, E. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108650182.009
Psychothérapie positive pour être plus heureux à deux
Antoine, P., & Andreotti, E. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-75892-8.00008-7
Angus, R. (2020) · Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association · doi:10.30688/janzssa.2020.08
“Positive Psychology research is evidencebased and applied in many settings (Lyubomirsky & Sin, 2009).”
MethodOptimal Local Government and Public Service Provision
Drew, J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108678971.026
Shamlian, N., Bergeron, C., & Décary, A. (2019) · Santé mentale au Québec · doi:10.7202/1073531ar
Meta-analysis of the efficacy of best possible self : a positive psychology intervention
Fong, K. W. (2020) · DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) · doi:10.32657/10356/141392
Psychological Consequences of Lockdown on Womens due to COVID-19
Srivastava, S. (2021) · International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology · doi:10.22214/ijraset.2021.32727
Psychological resilience at work
IJntema, R. C. (2020) · doi:10.33540/159
The Complicated Path to Wellness
Reese, J. (2020) · Journal of Wellness · doi:10.18297/jwellness/vol3/iss1/7
“Drawing on the expertise of Seligman and others, specific practices of positive psychology can improve overall wellness [20, 25, 26].”
BackgroundWilliamson, E., Wilson, W. E., Pope, K., & Fuchs, C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62113-1_17
Prophetis, D., & Stephen, E. M. (2019)
Effects of Mental Fitness Positive Psychology Program for Improvement of Adjustment to Military Life
김민순, Young-gun, K., & Kim, H. J. (2017) · Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.24230/ksiop.30.2.201705.275
Chapitre 6. Séance 4 : se mettre à l’action
Shankland, R., Durand, J.-P., Paucsik, M., et al. (2018) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.shank.2018.01.0108
Positive Psychology and Counselling: A Clinical Mental Health Investigation Into Wellbeing in Qatar
Author, U. (2020) · Lincoln Repository (University of Lincoln) · doi:10.24385/lincoln.24326308
Wood-Barcalow, N. L., Tylka, T. L., & Judge, C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108758796.018
Objectification and Self-Objectification
Wood-Barcalow, N. L., Tylka, T. L., & Judge, C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108758796.013
Weiss, E. L. (2021) · Scholarship - Claremont (Claremont Colleges) · doi:10.5642/cguetd/232
Weight Stigma versus Weight Inclusivity
Wood-Barcalow, N. L., Tylka, T. L., & Judge, C. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108758796.005
Metadata
- Authors
- Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sin, Nancy L.
- Lyubomirsky, Sonja
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-03-19
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 467-487
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4679
- OpenAlex
- W2038506024
- Cited by
- 2,955
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 107 · 2025: 175 · 2024: 168 · 2023: 196 · 2022: 231 · 2021: 319 · 2020: 257 · 2019: 246 · 2018: 214 · 2017: 186 · 2016: 212 · 2015: 182 · 2014: 157 · 2013: 104 · 2012: 80
- FWCI
- 9.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Keywords
- positive psychology interventions, well-being, depressive symptoms, depression treatment, intervention effectiveness, self-selection, intervention duration, age differences, clinician guidance
- MeSH terms
- Depression, Depressive Disorder, Emotions, Humans, Personal Satisfaction, Psychology, Clinical, Psychotherapy, Treatment Outcome
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