Mindfulness and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Open accessAbstract
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a disorder characterized by attentional difficulties. Mindfulness is a receptive attention to present experience. Both ADHD and mindfulness are associated with attention and personality. This study tests whether individuals with ADHD have lower mindfulness scores than controls and, if true, whether personality contributes to these differences. One hundred and five adults (half with ADHD) were assessed for mindfulness, using the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills, and personality, using the Tridimensional Character Inventory. Individuals with ADHD report themselves as less mindful than non-ADHD controls and more novelty-seeking, less self-directed, and more self-transcendent. Mindfulness is negatively associated with ADHD and positively associated with self-directedness and self-transcendence. Analyses of subscales of mindfulness suggest that ADHD is associated most with the "Acting in Awareness" dimension, perhaps because of shared items reflecting attentional variability. The current findings support that a large portion of variability in trait mindfulness can be explained by ADHD status and personality traits of self-directedness and self-transcendence. It further suggests that interventions that increase mindfulness might improve symptoms of ADHD and increase self-directedness and/or self-transcendence.
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Adults diagnosed with ADHD score on average lower on trait mindfulness compared to individuals without an ADHD diagnosis.
“Generally, individuals diagnosed with ADHD scored on average lower on trait mindfulness compared to individuals without an ADHD diagnosis (17).”
From Trait mindfulness and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
Adults with ADHD are lower in trait mindfulness.
“Consistent with this, adults with ADHD are lower in trait mindfulness (Smalley et al., 2009).”
From Mindfulness Meditation Training for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Adulthood: Current Empirical Support, Treatment Overview, and Future Directions (2015) · cites this paper as Smalley et al., 2009
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“Mindfulness is defined as receptive attention to present experience, with both state and trait qualities (Smalley et al., 2009).”
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Personality Traits and Comorbidity in Adults With ADHD
Instanes, J. T., Haavik, J., & Halmøy, A. (2013) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054713511986 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…(Anckarsater et al., 2006; Downey, Pomerleau, & Pomerleau, 1996; Downey et al., 1997; Faraone, Kunwar, Adamson, & Biederman, 2009; Gomez, Woodworth, Waugh, & Corr, 2012; Jacob et al., 2007; Lynn et al., 2005; Sizoo, van den Brink, Gorissen van Eenige, & van der Gaag, 2009; Smalley et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSpiritual Perspective, Mindfulness, and Spiritual Care Practice of Hospice and Palliative Nurses
Ricci‐Allegra, P. (2018) · Journal of Hospice and Palliative Nursing · doi:10.1097/njh.0000000000000426 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“The KIMS has also been used in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Smalley et al., 2009) and borderline personality disorders (Perroud, Nicastro, Jermann, & Huguelet, 2012).”
MethodMindful Parenting Behaviors and Emotional Self-Regulation in Children With ADHD and Controls
Evans, S., Bhide, S., Quek, J., Nicholson, J. M., Anderson, V. A., Hazell, P., Mulraney, M., & Sciberras, E. (2020) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsaa073 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Galla, B. M., Hale, T. S., Shrestha, A., Loo, S. K., & Smalley, S. L. (2011) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-011-0083-0 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Burton, M., Schmertz, S. K., Price, M., Masuda, A., & Anderson, P. L. (2013) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.21929 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…related to a wide range of psychopathology (Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Laurenceau, 2007; Smalley et al., 2009; Wupperman, Neumann, Whitman, & Axelrod, 2009) and mindfulness training has alleviated symptoms across a range of problems…”
Keith, J. R., Blackwood, M. E., Mathew, R. T., & Lecci, L. B. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0655-0 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Lee, C. S. C., Ng, K.-H., Chan, P. C. K., & Peng, X. (2022) · Hong Kong Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1177/15691861211073826 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Gomez, R., Woodworth, R. J., Waugh, M., & Corr, P. J. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.015 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“These findings have generally been reported in past studies involving adults (Anckarsater et al., 2006; Downey et al., 1997; Faraone et al., 2001; Jacob et al., 2007; Lynn et al., 2005; Purper-Ouakil et al., 2010; Salgado et al., 2009; Sizoo et al., 2009; Smalley et al., 2009).”
ResultSingh, N. N., Lancioni, G. E., Karazsia, B. T., Felver, J. C., Myers, R. E., & Nugent, K. (2015) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0424-5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Mejı́as, R., Gotor, J. J. R., Niwa, M., Krasnova, I. N., Adamczyk, A. L., Han, M., Thomas, G. M., Xi, Z., Huganir, R. L., Pletnikov, M. V., et al. (2021) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-01194-6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Merwood, A., Asherson, P. J., & Larsson, H. (2012) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.10.003 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Gu, Y., & Zhu, Y. (2023) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2023.101869 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Cloninger's personality dimensions and ADHD: A meta-analytic review
Gomez, R., Doorn, G. H. V., Watson, S., Gomez, A., & Stavropoulos, V. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.11.054 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Temperament and characteristics related to attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms
Park, H., Suh, B. S., Lee, H.-K., & Lee, K. (2016) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.07.003 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“studies, the ST level of adult ADHDpatients has been reported to be high [35,49].”
BackgroundMindfulness & Bodyfulness: A New Paradigm
Caldwell, C. (2014) · Scholarship & Creative Works - Digital UNC a service of University Libraries (University of Northern Colorado) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Schmiedeler, S. (2015) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000341 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Mindfulness as an Intervention for ADHD
Househam, A. M., & Solanto, M. V. (2016) · The ADHD Report · doi:10.1521/adhd.2016.24.2.1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-directedness and the susceptibility to distraction by saliency
Dinica, K., Demenescu, L. R., Lord, A., Krause, A. L., Kaiser, R. H., Horn, D. I., Metzger, C. D., & Walter, M. (2015) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2015.1070792 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“, 2005), and a positive correlation of SD and mindfulness defined as “receptive attention” (Smalley et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSiebelink, N. M., Asherson, P. J., Antonova, E., Bögels, S. M., Speckens, A. E. M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Greven, C. U. (2019) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01279-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Mindfulness Interventions for College Students with ADHD: A Multiple Single Case Research Design
Lester, E. G., & Murrell, A. R. (2018) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/87568225.2018.1450107 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Behavioral Assessment of Mindfulness Difficulties in Borderline Personality Disorder
Scheibner, H. J., Spengler, S., Kanske, P., Roepke, S., & Bermpohl, F. (2016) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0572-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Akase, M., Terao, T., Kawano, N., Sakai, A., Hatano, K., Shirahama, M., Hirakawa, H., Kohno, K., & Ishii, N. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00252 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“With regard to the association between novelty seeking, mindfulness, and self-compassion, there is a report showing that individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) had lower mindfulness and higher novelty seeking whereas those without ADHD had higher mindfulness and lower novelty seeking (30), su…”
BackgroundMindfulness and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Gu, Y., Zhu, Y., & Brown, K. W. (2021) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000001388 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Murrell, A. R., Lester, E. G., & Sandoz, E. K. (2015) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/87568225.2015.1074022 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Thus, interventions that increase mindfulness skills may show promise for improving symptoms of ADHD (Fleming & McMahon, 2012; Smalley et al., 2009).”
BackgroundLeibing, E., Jamrozinski, K., Vormfelde, S. V., Stähl, J., & Doering, S. (2008) · Journal of Personality Disorders · doi:10.1521/pedi.2008.22.1.101 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Studies of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
O’Neill, J., Levitt, J. G., & Alger, J. R. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-5864-8_18 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Mindfulness in the middle school classroom
Doss, K. K., & Bloom, L. A. (2017) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/0261429417716352 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In a study of children with attentional difficulties, Smalley et al. (2009) found that mindfulness training successfully improved children’s ability to focus on academic tasks.”
BackgroundThe Future of Preschool Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention.
Hudziak, J., & Archangeli, C. (2017) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.chc.2017.02.010 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
When Emotional Intensity and Cognitive Rigidity Collide: What Can Counselors and Teachers Do?
Zakreski, M. J. (2018) · Gifted Child Today · doi:10.1177/1076217518786984 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, coins, leather, and fidget spinners) with fingertips, and distractor tasks such as drawing or writing (Cassone, 2015; Reeck et al., 2016; Smalley et al., 2009; Zylowska, 2012).”
BackgroundVarieties of Psychotherapy for Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Dobrean, A., Păsărelu, C. R., & Döpfner, M. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119462996.ch16 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
An Alternative Approach to Behavior Interventions: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
Solar, E. (2013) · Beyond Behavior · doi:10.1177/107429561302200208 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Smalley et al. (2009) suggested that mindfulness training may be a complementary tool for improving attention and behavior.”
BackgroundPhysical Therapists’ Perceptions of Mindfulness for Stress Reduction: An Exploratory Study
Willgens, A. M., Craig, S., DeLuca, M., DeSanto, C., Forenza, A., Kenton, T., Previte, E., Woytovich, C., & Yakimec, G. (2016) · Journal of Physical Therapy Education · doi:10.1097/00001416-201630020-00009 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Philip, A. C. (2010) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Kristofersson, G. K. (2012) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Haijen, E. C. H. M., Hurks, P. P. M., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1233585 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Generally, individuals diagnosed with ADHD scored on average lower on trait mindfulness compared to individuals without an ADHD diagnosis (17).”
BackgroundMetaanalyse zur Wirksamkeit achtsamkeitsbasierter Interventionen bei ADHS im Kindes- und Jugendalter
Linderkamp, F., & Lüdeke, S. (2019) · Kindheit und Entwicklung · doi:10.1026/0942-5403/a000278 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Bradley, W. J., Bodalski, E. A., de Arellano, A., Looby, A. R., Taylor, S. G., Canu, W. H., Serrano, J. W., & Flory, K. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100727 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Diehl, J. M., McGonigal, P. T., Morgan, T. A., Dalrymple, K. L., Harris, L. M., Chelminski, I., & Zimmerman, M. (2020) · Annals of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/104012372003200205 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“26-28 Taken together, these results suggest that although ER and mindfulness share strong transdiagnostic presences, differences in their relationship with depressive symptoms may emerge by examining this relationship across discrete diagnostic categories.”
The Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Adolescents with High-Incidence Disabilities
Solar, E. (2013) · doi:10.13021/mars/4126 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Bakhshi, S., Tehrani‐Doost, M., & Batouli, S. A. H. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.10.005 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Designing, Implementing, and Evaluating a Group Therapy for Underserved Populations
Waltman, S. H., Hetrick, H., & Tasker, T. E. (2012) · Residential Treatment for Children & Youth · doi:10.1080/0886571x.2012.725374 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“One study found that individuals with ADHD have lower trait mindfulness than individuals who do not meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD (Smalley et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMindfulness Training for Adolescents with ADHD and their Families: A Time-series Evaluation
Shecter, C. (2014) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The SASOP/PsychMg child and adolescent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder guidelines
Belsham, B., Kelly, L., & Schoeman, R. (2025) · South African Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v31i0.2357 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“87,94”
Yavuz, B. G., Yavuz, M., & Sönmez, A. Ö. (2018) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12290 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Hariharan, Y., Meiers, C., Robert, C., & Ludvik, M. B. (2023) · Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1108/jrit-05-2022-0025 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Fang, Y., Liu, J., Zhang, B., Lau, M., Ho, Y.-F., Yang, Y., Shi, Y., Poon, E., Tse, A. C.-Y., & Sun, F. (2024) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075241239878 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Hence, there is “ an overlap of primary role of attention in mindfulness/meditation and the de fi cits of attention in children/adolescents with ADHD ” (Smalley et al., 2009, p. 1089).”
Trait mindfulness in adolescents with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Mitchell, J. T., Davis, N. O., & Lunsford‐Avery, J. R. (2025) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2025.104926 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Efectividad del mindfulness en personas con TDAH: estudio de revisión
Fontenla, V. M. (2017) · ReiDoCrea Revista electrónica de investigación Docencia Creativa · doi:10.30827/digibug.48549 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
golestaneh, A., mohammadi, M., Davoodi, A., & Fath, N. (2022) · The Journal Of Psychological Science · doi:10.52547/jps.21.110.383 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Hwang, E.-Y., Chung, S.-Y., Hwang, W.-W., & Kim, J.-W. (2010) · Journal of Oriental Neuropsychiatry · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Children’s experiences of learning mindfulness to help develop their attentional skills
Carelse, B. (2013) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · doi:10.15123/pub.3041 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“There was emerging research in this area (Napoli, Krech, & Holley, 2005; Semple, 2010; Smalley et al., 2009; van der Oord et al., 2012).”
BackgroundPredictive role of mindfulness in externalizing disorders among adolescents
Samarghandi, A., Mashhadi, A., & Shamloo, Z. S. (2019) · Journal of Research and Health · doi:10.32598/jrh.9.6.463 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kantaş, Ö., & İmamoğlu, E. O. (2023) · Türk Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.31828/turkpsikoloji.1350116 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Linderkamp, F. (2019) · Lernen und Lernstörungen · doi:10.1024/2235-0977/a000265 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mindfulness-Based Attention as a Moderator of the Relationship Between ADHD and Comordid Disorders
Jacobs, A. (2011) · CommonKnowledge Research Repository (Pacific University Oregon) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Solar, E. (2018) · Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals · doi:10.64546/jaasep.360 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Resting-state memory consolidation in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Scalia, B., & Wamsley, E. J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323884 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“First, as hypothesized, we confirmed that individuals with ADHD are low in trait mindfulness [81,82].”
Adaptive Virtual Reality Meditation for Adults with ADHD
Zhagufarova, A., Banakou, D., & Salam, H. (2025) · Lecture notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-97257-7_8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A PILOT METHOD FOR MULTIMODAL GROUP THERAPY FOR ADULTS WITH ADHD
Marin, A., Senis, E., Hastie-Talledo, G., & Backenstraß, M. (2014) · International Journal of Integrative Psychotherapy · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Exploring the impact of mindfulness on adolescents: A mixed methods approach
Desai, P. S. (2015) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
School Experiences of Non-Medicated Children Diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Steenport, N. (2019) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Component of Mindfulness: Attention
Gülden, Ç., & Yalçın, İ. (2024) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1371368 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cairncross, M. (2015) · Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Anger, Forgiveness and Mindfulness: Correlates of Perceived Stress in an LGB Sample
Schumacher, M. R. (2015) · doi:10.12794/metadc822763 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Mindfulness Practice in Children and Adolescents
Nikander, D. (2015) · doi:10.31979/etd.3c8s-g3cg · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The effect of tDCS on mind wandering in adults with and without ADHD:Preprint
Nejati, V., Majidinezhad, M., Yavari, F., & Nitsche, M. A. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2902204/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mindfulness Research Foundations
Gehart, D. R. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3033-9_3
Pechmann, A. M. (2015) · The Keep (Eastern Illinois University)
The Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Attention and Rumination
David, D. (2020) · Western CEDAR (Western Washington University) · doi:10.25710/s6cg-ca21
- Authors
- Smalley, S. L., Loo, S. K., Hale, T. S., Shrestha, A., McGough, J., Flook, L., & Reise, S.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Smalley, Susan L.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-08-13
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1087-1098
- ISSN
- 0021-9762 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4679
- PMC
- PMC2827240
- OpenAlex
- W2140755923
- Cited by
- 114
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 3.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH058277, MH058277, MH5277)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NS054124, R01NS054124)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, mindfulness, trait mindfulness, personality traits, self-direction, self-transcendence, novelty seeking, attention, adult ADHD
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Awareness, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Personality, Surveys and Questionnaires, Regression Analysis
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