The DOI matches its Crossref record; 73 of the 73 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A general theory of sexual differentiation
Open accessAbstract
A general theory of mammalian sexual differentiation is proposed. All biological sex differences are the result of the inequality in effects of the sex chromosomes, which are the only factors that differ in XX vs. XY zygotes. This inequality leads to male‐specific effects of the Y chromosome, including expression of the testis‐determining gene Sry that causes differentiation of testes. Thus,Sry sets up lifelong sex differences in effects of gonadal hormones. Y genes also act outside of the gonads to cause male‐specific effects. Differences in the number of X chromosomes between XX and XY cells cause sex differences in expression (1) of Xist, (2) of X genes that escape inactivation, and (3) of parentally imprinted X genes. Sex differences in phenotype are ultimately the result of multiple, independent sex‐biasing factors, hormonal and sex chromosomal. These factors act in parallel and in combination to induce sex differences. They also can offset each other to reduce sex differences. Other mechanisms, operating at the level of populations, cause groups of males to differ on average from groups of females. The theory frames questions for further study, and directs attention to inherent sex‐biasing factors that operate in many tissues to cause sex differences, and to cause sex‐biased protection from disease. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Cites
The male-specific region of the human Y chromosome is a mosaic of discrete sequence classes
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Self-citationFunctional Coherence of the Human Y Chromosome
Lahn, B. T., & Page, D. C. (1997) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.278.5338.675 · Cited by 803
Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain
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Self-citationSex beyond the genitalia: the human brain mosaic
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Cited by
Sex and gender: modifiers of health, disease, and medicine
Mauvais-Jarvis, F., Bairey Merz, N., Barnes, P. J., Brinton, R. D., Carrero, J.-J., DeMeo, D. L., De Vries, G. J., Epperson, C. N., Govindan, R., Klein, S. L., et al. (2020) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(20)31561-0 · Cited by 2,001
Oyola, M. G., & Handa, R. J. (2017) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1369523 · Cited by 710
“For a detailed review on the direct influence of sex chromosomes on brain sexual differentiation see Arnold (2017) and Burgoyne and Arnold (2016).”
BackgroundQualitative sex differences in pain processing: emerging evidence of a biased literature
Mogil, J. S. (2020) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-020-0310-6 · Cited by 691
Sex Differences in Gene Expression and Regulatory Networks across 29 Human Tissues
Lopes-Ramos, C. M., Chen, C.-Y., Kuijjer, M. L., Paulson, J. N., Sonawane, A. R., Fagny, M., Platig, J., Glass, K., Quackenbush, J., & DeMeo, D. L. (2020) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107795 · Cited by 445
Sex differences in obesity, lipid metabolism, and inflammation—A role for the sex chromosomes?
Zore, T., Palafox, M., & Reue, K. (2018) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2018.04.003 · Cited by 239
Metadata
- Authors
- Arnold, A. P.
- Venue
- Journal of Neuroscience Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-11-07
- Volume
- 95
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 291-300
- ISSN
- 0360-4012 (ISSN-L)
- 1097-4547
- OpenAlex
- W2556193517
- Cited by
- 287
- References
- 73
- FWCI
- 20.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
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Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
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