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How can I remember when “I” wasn’t there: long-term retention of traumatic experiences and emergence of the cognitive self
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“recalled very little at either time point when they were younger than 30 months at the time of the injury, but recalled very well when they were older than this (109).”
From The Stress Acceleration Hypothesis of Nightmares (2017) · cites this paper as [109]
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Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (1995) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/1041-6080(95)90031-4 · Cited by 1,287
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Salmon, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2002) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(01)00086-1 · Cited by 407
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Simcock, G. P., & Hayne, H. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00442 · Cited by 227
Children's Memory for Traumatic Injury
Peterson, C., & Bell, M. J. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01902.x · Cited by 215
Self-citationTo Tell or Not to Tell: Disclosure and the Narrative Self
Pasupathi, M., McLean, K. C., & Weeks, T. L. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00539.x · Cited by 197
Creating coherence out of chaos? Children's narratives of emotionally positive and negative events
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Autobiographical memory and suggestibility in children with autism spectrum disorder
Bruck, M., London, K., Landa, R. J., & GOODMAN, J. (2007) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579407070058 · Cited by 168
“According to Howe and colleagues ~Howe et al., 1994, 2003; Howe & Courage, 1993, 1997!, the emergence of the cognitive self ~or self-recognition! heralds the onset of ABM.”
BackgroundPasupathi, M., & Wainryb, C. (2010) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018897 · Cited by 166
“From infancy through adolescence, children’s sense of themselves develops over time in accessibility, complexity, abstraction, coherence, and temporal extension (Damon & Hart, 1988; Harter, 1998; Howe et al., 1994).”
BackgroundThe effects of stress on young children's memory for a natural disaster.
Bahrick, L. E., Parker, J. F., Fıvush, R., & Levitt, M. J. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.4.4.308 · Cited by 137
Lindsay, D. S., & Read, J. D. (1995) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.846 · Cited by 144
“Howe, Courage, and Peterson (1994) interviewed children who had experienced physical traumas (broken bones, contusions, etc.) sufficiently severe to require hospital treatment.”
BackgroundRecent research on children’s testimony about experienced and witnessed events
Pipe, M., Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., & Esplin, P. W. (2004) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.08.006 · Cited by 139
Memory for traumatic experiences in early childhood
Cordón, I. M., Pipe, M.-E., Sayfan, L., Melinder, A., & Goodman, G. S. (2004) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.003 · Cited by 124
“However, the evidence for non-verbal memories appears to be dependent on context, and young children may be reliant on re-encountering events, places, and people for reactivating and accessing these memories (Fivush, Pipe, Murachver, & Reese, 1997; see Howe et al., 1994, for a case study example).”
BackgroundInfluentialAckil, J. K., Abbema, D. L. V., & Bauer, P. J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00027-4 · Cited by 117
Roberts, K. P. (2002) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/s0273-2297(02)00005-9 · Cited by 116
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Howe, M. L., Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Cerrito, B. M. (2004) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00748.x · Cited by 120
“1997; Saywitz, Goodman, Nicholas, & Moan, 1991) or painful and unexpected physical interventions involved in emergency room treatment ( Howe et al., 1994, 1995 ) do parallel some of the attributes associated with physical and sexual abuse, they do not carry the same psychological ramifications (e.g., shame, guilt, thr…”
BackgroundSelf-citationWhen autobiographical memory begins
Howe, M. L. (2003) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.001 · Cited by 101
“As well, in an investigation of children s memories for injuries requiring emergency room treatment, Howe, Courage, and Peterson (1994) reported that children who were younger than 2-yearsold expressed recollection of their accidents nonverbally after a 5-day retention interval but very little…”
BackgroundSelf-citationRecalling an event one year later: the impact of props, drawing and a prior interview
Salmon, K., & Pipe, M. (2000) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(200003/04)14:2 · Cited by 113
Police interviews with child sexual abuse victims: Patterns of reporting, avoidance and denial
Leander, L. (2010) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.09.011 · Cited by 86
Children's memory for traumatic experiences
Howe, M. L. (1997) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(97)90004-2 · Cited by 79
Self-citationEvans, S., & Souza, L. H. D. (2008) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732308315433 · Cited by 73
Intrusions in preschoolers’ recall of traumatic childhood events
Howe, M. L., Courage, M. L., & Peterson, C. (1995) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03214419 · Cited by 67
Self-citationThe Stress Acceleration Hypothesis of Nightmares
Nielsen, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00201 · Cited by 63
“and were interviewed within a few days and again 6 months later recalled very little at either time point when they were younger than 30 months at the time of the injury, but recalled very well when they were older than this (109).”
BackgroundThe influences of delay and severity of intellectual disability on event memory in children.
Brown, D. A., Lewis, C. N., Lamb, M. E., & Stephens, E. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029388 · Cited by 65
Narrative exposure therapy in children : a case study
Schauer, E., Neuner, F., Elbert, T. R., Ertl, V., Onyut, L. P., Odenwald, M. G., & Schauer, M. (2004) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 65
Children's basic memory processes, stress, and maltreatment
Howe, M. L., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2006) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579406060378 · Cited by 56
Self-citationIndependent Paths in the Development of Infant Learning and Forgetting
Howe, M. L., & Courage, M. L. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1997.2395 · Cited by 55
Self-citationPasupathi, M., Weeks, T. L., & Rice, C. (2006) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x06289425 · Cited by 31
Howe, M. L., & O’Sullivan, J. T. (1997) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1006/drev.1996.0428 · Cited by 49
Self-citationA sexual abuse case study: Children's memories and reports
Leander, L., Christianson, S. Å., & Granhag, P. A. (2007) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1375/pplt.14.1.120 · Cited by 48
“Considering research on children’s memories of stressful events, the vast majority of studies indicate that children remember stressful and unique events well (e.g., Goodman et al., 1991; Howe et al., 1996).”
BackgroundMcDonald, S. E., Collins, E., Cody, A. M., Nicotera, N., Graham‐Bermann, S. A., Ascione, F. R., & Williams, J. H. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516689775 · Cited by 46
Advances in early memory development research: Insights about the dark side of the moon
Courage, M. L., & Howe, M. L. (2004) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2003.09.005 · Cited by 42
“Finally, in an investigation of children!s memories for injuries requiring emergency room treatment, Howe, Courage, and Peterson (1994, 1995) reported that children who were younger than 2-years-old expressed recollection of their accidents nonverbally after a 5 day retention interval, but…”
BackgroundSelf-citationChae, Y., Goodman, G. S., & Edelstein, R. S. (2011) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386491-8.00001-3 · Cited by 47
Maltreated Children's Memory of Stressful Removals from Their Biological Parents
Baugerud, G. A., & Melinder, A. M. D. (2011) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1817 · Cited by 39
Interference effects in young children's long-term retention.
Howe, M. L. (1995) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.4.579 · Cited by 39
Self-citationValentino, K., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01152.x · Cited by 37
True and false recall and dissociation among maltreated children: The role of self-schema
Valentino, K., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2008) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579408000102 · Cited by 42
“However, despite the high level of emotionality and stress that might accompany recollections of unanticipated emergency room procedures (Howe et al., 1994, 1995) or hospital experiences that involve genital touching (e.g., Goodman & Quas, 1997), it is unclear whether the intensity of these…”
BackgroundMemory and Developmental Psychopathology
Howe, M. L., Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939390.ch15 · Cited by 33
Self-citationChildren exposed to obscene phone calls: What they remember and tell
Leander, L., Granhag, P. A., & Christianson, S. Å. (2005) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.12.012 · Cited by 32
“This result adds to previous findings and supports the claim that, although children do omit information, what they in fact do tell is often highly accurate (Goodman et al., 1991; Howe et al., 1996).”
BackgroundResultChildren’s recall of medical experiences: the impact of stress
Brown, D. A., Salmon, K., Pipe, M., Rutter, M. M., Craw, S., & Taylor, B. J. (1999) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00127-6 · Cited by 31
“…a negative impact of stress on memory (Merritt et al., 1994; Peters, 1987, 1991; Vandermaas, Hess, & Baker-Ward, 1993), and still others have found no impact of stress on children’s memory (Goodman et al., 1991, Study 1; Howe et al., 1994, 1995; Oates & Shrimpton, 1991; Peterson & Bell, 1996).”
BackgroundLeander, L., Christianson, S. Å., & Granhag, P. A. (2008) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1433 · Cited by 33
“Based on research on children’s memory for stressful events (e.g. Goodman et al., 1991; Howe et al., 1996), it is reasonable to believe that the victims also remembered the severe sexual acts (as well as the less severe acts).”
BackgroundMemory and Knowledge Development
Schneider, W., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2005) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781848608306.n17 · Cited by 35
Paley, J. H., & Alpert, J. L. (2003) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/0736-9735.20.2.329 · Cited by 27
The role of repeated interviewing in children's responses to cross‐examination‐style questioning
O’Neill, S. C., & Zajac, R. (2012) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02096.x · Cited by 24
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McKinlay, A., Corrigan, J. D., Bogner, J. A., & Horwood, L. J. (2017) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000284 · Cited by 19
Lindberg, M. A., Jones, S., Collard, L. M., & Thomas, S. W. (2001) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221320109597486 · Cited by 18
Episodic Memory: An Evolving Concept
Szpunar, K. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012370509-9.00147-9 · Cited by 17
Children as Witnesses to Homicidal Violence: What They Remember and Report
Christianson, S. Å., Azad, A., Leander, L., & Selenius, H. (2012) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2012.692930 · Cited by 17
Richardson, R., & Hayne, H. (2007) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00508.x · Cited by 16
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“Third, although children’s memories of traumatic and nontraumatic events can be robust, the memories of children under 2 years of age are more limited than those of older children, and this difference results more so from failures in storage than in retrieval processes [16,17,22].”
BackgroundChild Sexual Abuse Evaluations
Kuehnle, K. (2003) · Handbook of Psychology · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1122 · Cited by 16
Somatic expressions of trauma in experiential play therapy.
Norton, B. E., Ferriegel, M., & Norton, C. C. (2011) · International Journal of Play Therapy · doi:10.1037/a0024349 · Cited by 15
Children's Beliefs about Long-Term Retention
O’Sullivan, J. T., Howe, M. L., & Marche, T. A. (1996) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01899.x · Cited by 14
Self-citationLamb, M. E., & Thierry, K. L. (2005) · doi:10.1002/9780470756676.ch24 · Cited by 14
Children's Reports of Verbal Sexual Abuse: Effects of Police Officers' Interviewing Style
Leander, L., Granhag, P. A., & Christianson, S. Å. (2009) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218710902930226 · Cited by 13
“This result confirms previous findings and supports the claim that, although children do omit sexual information, what they in fact do tell is often highly accurate (Bidrose & Goodman, 2000: Goodman et al., 1991; Howe et al., 1996).”
ResultThe legal treatment of recovered memories of child sexual abuse
Taub, S. (1996) · Journal of Legal Medicine · doi:10.1080/01947649609511006 · Cited by 13
The development of event memory: Implications for child witness testimony.
Pipe, M., Thierry, K. L., & Lamb, M. E. (2017) · doi:10.4324/9781315086309-19 · Cited by 12
Factors influencing recall of childhood sexual abuse
Rogers, M. L. (1995) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02102895 · Cited by 18
The aims of anesthesia in infants: the relevance of philosophy, psychology and a little evidence
Davidson, A. J. (2006) · Pediatric Anesthesia · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9592.2006.02053.x · Cited by 11
A different view of metamemory with illustrations from children’s beliefs about long-term retention
O’Sullivan, J. T., & Howe, M. L. (1998) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03172810 · Cited by 10
“That is, more gist than peripheral details are remembered (e.g., Howe, Courage, & Peterson, 1994 ) and postevent information can interfere with memory for the original traumatic event (e.g., Howe, Courage, & Peterson, 1995).”
BackgroundSelf-citationChildren’s Vantage Point of Recalling Traumatic Events
Dawson, K. S., & Bryant, R. A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162030 · Cited by 10
“Additionally, a series of studies conducted by Howe [11, 12] exploring the enduring nature of children’s memories for painful and invasive medical procedures found that despite a substantial decline a year later in recall of “peripheral” aspects of the event (e.g. who took the child home after the procedure), children…”
BackgroundInfluentialAzad, A., Christianson, S., & Selenius, H. (2013) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2013.793337 · Cited by 9
Victor and Catherine Henri on earliest recollections
Nicolas, S., Gounden, Y., & Piolino, P. (2013) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503313003035 · Cited by 9
Memory narrowing in children and adults
Rush, E. B., Quas, J. A., & Yim, I. S. (2010) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1757 · Cited by 8
The Shaping of New Testament Narrative and Salvation Teachings by Painful Childhood Experience
Abelow, B. J. (2011) · Archive for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1163/157361211x552218 · Cited by 8
“These early memories are said to be “remembered,” but in an abstracted form that is incomplete with respect to awareness that the events actually happened to oneself (Howe, 2000, e.g. p. 89; Howe, Courage, and Peterson, 1996).”
Infants' and Toddlers' Remembering and Forgetting of a Stressful Medical Procedure
Lindholm, T., Sjöberg, R. L., Pedroletti, C., Boman, A., Olsson, G., Sund, A., & Lindblad, F. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn066 · Cited by 7
Early memories come in small packages: episodic memory in young children and adults
Tustin, K., & Hayne, H. (2016) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21423 · Cited by 6
Recall of unpleasant emotion using memory-enhancing principles
Engelberg, E., & Christianson, S. (2000) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160008410835 · Cited by 6
Nachson, I. (2001) · International Review of Victimology · doi:10.1177/026975800100800101 · Cited by 5
Pacheco, C. R., & Scheeringa, M. S. (2021) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2021.1994498 · Cited by 4
“Finally, two studies of children who were recruited from emergency departments following treatment for accidental injuries found no relations between trauma exposure and memory accuracy (Howe et al., 1994; Peterson & Bell, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluential“Implicit Memory” Cannot Explain Dissociated Traumatic Memory: A Theoretical Critique
Milchman, M. S. (2003) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1300/j229v04n01_03 · Cited by 4
Remembering Early Experiences during Childhood
Pipe, M., Goodman, G. S., Quas, J. A., Bidrose, S., Ablin, D. S., & Craw, S. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-2672-5_19 · Cited by 5
Kim, O. (1999) · Research in Nursing & Health · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-240x(199904)22:2 · Cited by 47
Alternative “truths” of repressed memories: Views of judges of the Israeli supreme court
Nachson, I. (2025) · Legal and Criminological Psychology · doi:10.1111/lcrp.12275 · Cited by 3
Child Sexual Abuse Evaluations
Kuehnle, K., & Connell, M. A. (2012) · Handbook of Psychology, Second Edition · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop211024 · Cited by 3
A 2‐year‐old child's memory of hospitalization during early infancy
Solter, A. (2008) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.570 · Cited by 2
“…dependent on a cognitive sense of self, this case study appears to contradict the assumptions that a sense of self does not emerge until 24 months (Howe et al., 1994), and that true mental time travel (specifically the ability to remember the past using episodic memory) does not emerge until 3–4…”
ResultAutobiographical Memory and Culture
Chae, Y., & Wang, Q. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190057695.013.35 · Cited by 2
Memory, Suggestibility, and Disclosure Processes
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What sexually abused children remember and report : minding the gap
Leander, L. (2007) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University) · Cited by 2
A direct comparison of children's recall of stressful and non-stressful events
Price, H. L. (2006) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 2
Racine, A. A. (2016) · UWSpace (University of Waterloo) · Cited by 2
Posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood
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A Bird's Eye View of Consciousness
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(No) thanks for the memories: creation of false memories for dramatic events
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Jurkanin, T. J., Анатольевич, С. В., Allen, J. M., Anderson, B., Barringer, T., Bender, L. G., Bolton, M., & Bowman, D. (2006)
A Dissertation entitled Explaining the Role of Emotional Valence in Children's Memory Suggestibility
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A Dissertation entitled Explaining the Role of Emotional Valence in Children's Memory Suggestibility
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The influence of stress on giving testimony
Snežana, B. (2015) · Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta Novi Sad · doi:10.5937/zrpfns49-9781
Sharing memories in children: The importance of close and significative relationship
Russo, K., Aiello, G., Sarno, A. M. D., Salvati, T., Catone, G., & Gritti, A. (2017) · Journal of Psychosocial Systems · doi:10.23823/jps.v1i2.21
“For example, as time goes by, peripheral details of the event are lost, whereas central aspects are maintained (Howe et al. 1994).”
BackgroundChild witnesses: a study of memory and suggestibility.
Grattagliano, I., Berlingerio, I., Lisi, A. M.-D., et al. (2013) · PubMed · doi:10.7417/ct.2013.1542
“The quantity and quality of the details contained in the account are also affected by the time that has passed since the event occurred (9, 10).”
Narratives of Young People Living with Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
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Victor and Catherine Henri on earliest recollections
Nicolas, S., Gounden, Y., & Piolino, P. (2013) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.3917/anpsy.133.0349
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Metadata
- Authors
- Howe, M. L., Courage, M. L., & Peterson, C.
- Affiliations
- Memorial University of Newfoundland (CA)
- Venue
- Consciousness and Cognition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1994-09
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 327-355
- ISSN
- 1053-8100 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2012246159
- Cited by
- 108
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 2.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Consciousness and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Keywords
- autobiographical memory, early childhood memories, traumatic memory, long-term memory retention, cognitive self, self-concept development, stress and memory, false memory
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