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Feast and Famine: Critical Role of Glucocorticoids with Insulin in Daily Energy Flow
Abstract
The hypothesis proposed in this review is that normal diurnal rhythms in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are highly regulated by activity in medial hypothalamic nuclei to effect an interaction between corticosteroids and insulin such that optimal metabolism results in response to changes in the fed or fasted state of the animal. There are marked diurnal rhythms in function of the HPA axis under both basal and stress conditions. The HPA axis controls corticosteroid output from the adrenal and, in turn, forward elements of this axis are inhibited by feedback from circulating plasma corticosteroid levels. Basal activity in the HPA axis of mammals fed ad lib peaks about 2 h before the peak of the diurnal feeding rhythm, and is controlled by input from the suprachiasmatic nuclei. The rhythm in stress responsiveness is lowest at the time of the basal peak and highest at the time of the basal trough in the HPA axis activity. There are also diurnal rhythms in corticosteroid feedback sensitivity of basal and stress-induced ACTH secretion which peak at the time of the basal trough. These rhythms are all overridden when feeding, and thus insulin secretion, is disrupted. Corticosteroids interact with insulin on food intake and body composition, and corticosteroids also increase insulin secretion. Corticosteroids stimulate feeding at low doses but inhibit it at high doses; however, it is the high levels of insulin, induced by high levels of corticosteroids, that may inhibit feeding. The effects of corticosteroids on liver, fat, and muscle cell metabolism, with emphasis on their interactions with insulin, are briefly reviewed. Corticosteroids both synergize with and antagonize the effects of insulin. The effects of stress hormones, and their interactions with insulin on lipid and protein metabolism, followed by some of the metabolic effects of injury stress, with or without nutritional support, are evaluated. In the presence of elevated insulin stimulated by glucocorticoids and nutrition, stress causes less severe catabolic effects. In the central nervous system, regulation of function in the HPA axis is clearly affected by the activity of medial hypothalamic nuclei that also alter feeding, metabolism, and obesity in rats. Lesions of the arcuate (ARC) and ventromedial (VMN) paraventricular (PVN) nuclei result in obesity and hyperactivity in the HPA axis. Moreover, adrenalectomy inhibits or prevents development of the lesion-induced obesity. There are interactions among these nuclei; one mode of communication is via inputs of neuropeptide Y (NPY) cells in the ARC to the VMN, dorsomedial nuclei, and PVN.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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“Similarly, stress has been shown to be associated with increased appetite (Dallman et al., 1993)”
From The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education (2020) · cites this paper as Dallman et al., 1993
In the citing paper
“In fact, experimentally increasing late-afternoon and early-evening cortisol through hydrocortisone administration induces insulin resistance the following day [69, 73, 74].”
From Sleep, testosterone and cortisol balance, and ageing men (2022) · cites this paper as [69]
In the citing paper
“These findings are highly relevant because hypercortisolemia during the late-afternoon and early-evening is harmful, and is believed to cause the insulin resistance observed with advanced age [60, 69, 70], impair physical performance [71] and trigger neurocognitive deficits [72].”
From Sleep, testosterone and cortisol balance, and ageing men (2022) · cites this paper as [69]
In the citing paper
“Administration of glucocorticoids to bolster cortisol levels in the late afternoon and early evening also induces insulin resistance [69, 73, 74] through post-receptor mechanisms [90–92].”
From Sleep, testosterone and cortisol balance, and ageing men (2022) · cites this paper as [69]
In the citing paper
“Raised cortisol concentrations in the evening are thought to contribute to age-related insulin resistance [55], [56].”
From Impact of Five Nights of Sleep Restriction on Glucose Metabolism, Leptin and Testosterone in Young Adult Men (2012) · cites this paper as [55]
In the citing paper
“Circadian misalignment may lead to central and peripheral deleterious consequences, such as memory deficit and insulin resistance [69–71].”
From Impact of Sleep and Its Disturbances on Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Activity (2010) · cites this paper as [70]
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BackgroundTsai, P., Huang, C., Hung, Y.-C., & Cheng, C.-R. (2001) · PubMed · Cited by 21
Shen, L., Ma, L., Qin, X., et al. (2004) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00064.2004 · Cited by 21
“Interestingly, plasma Cort levels in FR rats rose 1 h before the onset of feeding and decreased to a basal range at the end of 4 h of feeding, again supporting the notion that there is a tight relationship with the onset of feeding behavior (8).”
BackgroundO’Shea, R. D., & Gundlach, A. L. (1995) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/0196-9781(95)00075-u · Cited by 21
Ruiter, M., Buijs, R. M., & Kalsbeek, A. (2006) · Current Diabetes Reviews · doi:10.2174/157339906776818596 · Cited by 22
“Although the daily rhythm in corticosteroids [47, 52, 57, 101, 241] correlates very well with the mammal-”
BackgroundHypothalamic Obesity: Multiple Routes Mediated by Loss of Function in Medial Cell Groups
Choi, S. (1999) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.140.9.4081 · Cited by 21
Viltart, O., Duriez, P., & Tolle, V. (2018) · Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1515/hmbci-2018-0010 · Cited by 20
Zhang, V. Y., Williams, C. T., Palme, R., & Buck, C. L. (2020) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104818 · Cited by 20
“Sustained elevations in GCs due to starvation and food shortage occur when a shift in energy production from fatty acid metabolism (phase II starvation) to the breakdown of essential proteins (phase III starvation) occurs (Cherel et al., 1988; Dallman et al., 1993).”
BackgroundDantzer, B. (2023) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105311 · Cited by 19
Coccurello, R., Romano, A., Giacovazzo, G., Tempesta, B., Fiore, M., Giudetti, A. M., Marrocco, I., Fabio Altieri, F., Moles, A., & Gaetani, S. (2017) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-017-1434-y · Cited by 20
“This, in synergy with insulin, may increase ingestion of “comfort food” [1, 6, 73] and alter the complex neuroendocrine network that control energy homeostasis.”
Review of petroleum toxicity in marine reptiles
Ruberg, E. J., Williams, T., & Elliott, J. (2021) · Ecotoxicology · doi:10.1007/s10646-021-02359-9 · Cited by 19
Clocks within the Master Gland
Lin, X., Blum, I. D., & Storch, K.-F. (2015) · Journal of Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1177/0748730415580881 · Cited by 20
“Consistently, the surge in circulating GC levels is oppositely phased in humans (morning) and laboratory rodents (evening) (Dallman et al., 1993).”
BackgroundInhibiting Endogenous Cortisol Blunts the Meal-Entrained Rise in Serum Leptin
Laferrère, B., Abraham, C., Awad, M., Jean-Baptiste, S., Hart, A. B., García‐Lorda, P., Kokkoris, P., & Russell, C. D. (2006) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2005-0693 · Cited by 20
“The effects of cortisol are complex and dose dependent (39).”
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“Lipogenesis and gluconeogenesis are regulated by the GC hormone [6].”
BackgroundThe Regulation of Energy Balance by the Central Nervous System
Proulx, K., & Seeley, R. J. (2005) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2004.09.005 · Cited by 20
“Although it is beyond the scope of this article to synthesize that literature, it is clear that glucocorticoids have important peripheral and central effects to regulate energy balance [89,90].”
BackgroundAnxiolytic-like action in mice treated with nitrous oxide and oral triazolam or diazepam
Gries, D. A., Condouris, G. A., Shey, Z., & Houpt, M. I. (2005) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2004.07.028 · Cited by 20
Pournajafi‐Nazarloo, H., Nishiyama, M., Tanaka, Y., et al. (2002) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/s0167-0115(02)00006-x · Cited by 20
Sergiel, A., Barja, I., Navarro‐Castilla, Á., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0242341 · Cited by 19
“As glucocorticoids mediate redistribution of energy into different types of fat and regulate glucose levels in synergy with insulin [24,25], it has been hypothesized that they play a major role in regulating hyperphagia and autumn fat storage required in hibernating species.”
BackgroundEarly Life Nutrition and the Programming of the Phenotype
Buchanan, K. L., Meillère, A., & Jessop, T. S. (2022) · Fascinating life sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-90131-8_6 · Cited by 22
Nedungadi, T. P., & Briski, K. P. (2012) · Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1159/000338407 · Cited by 19
Foury, A., Tribout, T., Bazin, C., et al. (2009) · animal · doi:10.1017/s1751731109990504 · Cited by 19
“proteins, via peripheral catabolism and hepatic neoglucogenesis (Devenport et al., 1989; Dallman et al., 1993); it is not surprising that selection on carcass lean content results in the selection of animals with lower levels of cortisol in the LW population.”
BackgroundKokavec, A., & Crowe, S. F. (2001) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00606-2 · Cited by 19
Novelli, M., Pocai, A., Chiellini, C., Maffei, M., & Masiello, P. (2007) · Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews · doi:10.1002/dmrr.785 · Cited by 19
“On the other hand, we cannot rule out that it is the concomitant high levels of insulin that may inhibit feeding by reducing neuropeptide Y-ergic activity in the arcuate, as previously supposed [56], or at least have a permissive role.”
BackgroundRamos‐Quiroga, J. A., Corominas, M., Gloria Palomar, A., Ferrer, R., Valero, S., Montse Corrales, F., Vanesa Richarte, B., & Casas, M. (2016) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2016.03.014 · Cited by 19
Metadata
- Authors
- Dallman, M. F., Strack, A. M., Akana, S. F., Bradbury, M. J., Hanson, E. S., Scribner, K. A., & Smith, M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, San Francisco (US)
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1993-10
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 303-347
- ISSN
- 0091-3022 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1971922927
- Cited by
- 796
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 6.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (DK28172)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Adrenal Hormones and Disorders
- Keywords
- glucocorticoids, insulin, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, diurnal cycle, feeding behavior, stress hormones, corticosteroid feedback, ACTH secretion, arcuate nucleus, neuropeptide Y, obesity, energy metabolism, lipid metabolism, protein metabolism, catabolism, adrenalectomy, body composition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Circadian Rhythm, Eating, Energy Metabolism, Fasting, Feeding Behavior, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Insulin, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Stress, Physiological, Rats
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