Developmental differences in eyewitness suggestibility and memory for source
Abstract
To what extent do children who report suggested information believe they actually remember seeing the suggested details they report? Asking whether children misremember seeing suggested items is in essence a question about children's ability to monitor the source of their memories. The current study reports the results of two experiments designed to assess potential age-related changes in subjects' ability to accurately monitor the source of suggested information either immediately or following a 1-week delay. The results of both experiments revealed that although all subjects claimed to remember seeing suggested items, the magnitude of this effect varied with age such that first-graders made more source confusions than third- and fifth-graders, who in turn made more confusions than college subjects. Our findings suggest that these age differences are not simply a function of more general age-related memory or performance deficits, but instead reflect developmental differences in the tendency to confuse suggested information for actually witnessed events.
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ResultReliability of Children’s Testimony in the Era of Developmental Reversals
Brainerd, C., & Reyna, V. (2012) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2012.06.008 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…for paraphrases of literal and metaphorical statements (Reyna & Kiernan, 1994, 1995), to false memory for source details (Ackerman, 1992, 1994; Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995), to false memory for real-world events during free and cued recall of live event sequences (Pipe, Gee, Wilson, & Egerton,…”
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InfluentialMemory quality and misinformation for peripheral and central objects
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BackgroundTrauma and memory: Effects of post-event misinformation, retrieval order, and retention interval
Paz‐Alonso, P. M., & Goodman, G. S. (2007) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210701363146 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
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BackgroundSource Monitoring Reduces the Suggestibility of Preschool Children
Giles, J. W., Gopnik, A., & Heyman, G. D. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00453 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Older children and adults appear less suggestible in contexts that require them to monitor sources than in contexts that do not require this (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Lindsay & Johnson, 1989; Multhaup et al., 1999).”
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Children's Memory and Source Monitoring of Real-Life and Televised Events
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Holliday, R., Reyna, V., & Hayes, B. (2002) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1006/drev.2001.0534 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Children's Eyewitness Suggestibility
Holliday, R. E., Douglas, K. M., & Hayes, B. K. (1999) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/s0885-2014(99)00014-3 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Young children's understanding of conflicting mental representation predicts suggestibility.
Welch-Ross, M. K., Diecidue, K., & Miller, S. A. (1997) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.33.1.43 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
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“…(see Ceci & Bruck, 995; Ceci & Friedman, 2000; Ceci, Kulkofsky, Klemfuss, Sweeney, Bruck, 2007), so that young children are most susceptible to oth misleading suggestions (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Bjorklund t al., 2000; Bruck & Ceci, 1999) and false memories (Ackerman, 994; Reyna & Kiernan, 1994).”
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Holliday, R., & Weekes, B. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600736525 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
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Thierry, K. L., Spence, M. J., & Memon, A. (2001) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1207/s15327647jcd0201_1 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
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Strange, D. M., Sutherland, R., & Garry, M. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600896105 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Although the child suggestibility literature ( Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Cohen & Harnick, 1980; Pezdek & Roe, 1995; Sutherland & Hayne, 2001) might lead us to expect that children would be more likely to develop false memories than adults, 18% of the 10-year-olds had enough image-editing expertise to dismiss the false e…”
BackgroundEvidentiality and suggestibility: A new research venue
Aydın, Ç., & Ceci, S. J. (2009) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.251 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
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Interviewer Knowledge and Preschoolers' Reasoning About Knowledge States Moderate Suggestibility
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Intuitive Jurisprudence: Early Reasoning About the Functions of Punishment
Bregant, J., Shaw, A., & Kinzler, K. D. (2016) · Journal of Empirical Legal Studies · doi:10.1111/jels.12130 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Developmental researchers have produced a wealth of valuable research on topics such as the reliability of eyewitness testimony from children (e.g., Ackil & Zaragoza 1995; Ceci et al. 1987; Goodman et al. 2002; Koriat et al. 2001; Lampinen & Smith 1995; Tobey & Goodman 1992), the formation of false…”
Long-term survival of children's false memories: A review
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BackgroundAcceptance and Confidence of Central and Peripheral Misinformation
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“…(misattributions from misinformation to event phase), source monitoring (correct identification of the source of old items), and old–new recognition (identification of items as old, regardless of source) from performance on a single source-directed task (see, e.g., Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995).”
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Attention to global gist processing eliminates age effects in false memories
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“First, the monitor that is assumed to suppress false memory responses improves with age ( Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Lindsay, Johnson, & Kwon, 1991).”
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“…years of age tend to have difficulties in judging whether they performed or imagined an action (e.g., Day, Howie, & Markham, 1998) and are more susceptible to false suggestions in eyewitness testimony because they easily confuse the sources of events (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Poole & Lindsay, 1995).”
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Carneiro, P., Fernández, Á., & Dias, A. R. (2009) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/mc.37.2.115 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“This type of evidence revealed that, in some circumstances, young children are more prone to source memory confusions, which are thought to increase suggestibility (e.g., Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Lindsay, 2002; Perner, 2000).”
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Welch-Ross, M. K. (1999) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/s0885-2014(99)80020-3 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Preschoolers may be more suggestible either because they do not encode source information or because they do not effectively examine their memory representations for source cues ( Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Ceci, Huffman, Smith, &”
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“…in many studies, children have been able to report information from both target and non-target events indicating that both sources of information were encoded and retrieved (e.g., Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Marche & Howe, 1995; Roberts & Blades, 1999; Powell & Roberts, 2002; Thierry et al., 2001).”
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Post-event information affects children’s autobiographical memory after one year.
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“false reports of the event (e.g., Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995, 1998; Bruck, Melnyk, & Ceci,”
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“Repeating questions, pressuring for responses, and misleading questioning reduce the use of DK responses in favor of confabulation and guessing (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Bruck, Ceci & Hembrooke, 2002; Memon & Vartoukian, 1996; Poole & Lindsay, 2001; Register & Kihlstrom, 1988).”
BackgroundRecall of details never experienced: Effects of age, repetition, and semantic cues
Holliday, R. E., Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2007) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.05.002 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“With regard to monitoring, it is well established that source-monitoring errors decline from early childhood to young adulthood due to improvements in correct source discriminations (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Foley & Johnson, 1985; Lindsay, Johnson, & Kwon, 1991).”
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Ridley, A. M., Clifford, B. R., & Keogh, E. (2002) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.813 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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“Older children (10 years and above) are also likely to be misled by suggestive questions ( Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995, 1998; Duncan, Whitney, & Kunen, 1982; Pezdek & Roe, 1997; Ridley, Clifford, & Keogh, 2002; Sutherland & Hayne, 2001).”
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Perceptions of witness credibility: Variations across age
Newcombe, P. A., & Bransgrove, J. (2007) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.04.003 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The Contribution of Executive Function to Source Memory Development in Early Childhood
Rajan, V., Cuevas, K., & Bell, M. A. (2013) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.763809 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Compared with adults, young children are also more likely to misattribute sources (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995) and perform worse on source tests when a delay is imposed (Parker, 1995).”
Developmental Underpinnings of Children's Testimony
Saywitz, K. J. (2002) · doi:10.1002/9780470713679.ch1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Melinder, A. M. D., & Gilstrap, L. L. (2008) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405620701210445 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…are more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of interviewers’ misleading questions than are older children and adults, with preschoolers being more susceptible to suggestive questions than older children (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Ceci & Bruck, 1995; Geddie, Fradin & Beer, 2000; Gobbo, 2000).”
BackgroundAge-appropriate cues facilitate source-monitoring and reduce suggestibility in 3- to 7-year-olds
Bright‐Paul, A., Jarrold, C., & Wright, D. B. (2004) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.06.001 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
What Children Bring to the Interview Context: Individual Differences in Children’s Event Reports
Pipe, M., & Salmon, K. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602251-16 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Zajac, R., Garry, M., London, K., Goodyear‐Smith, F., & Hayne, H. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.778287 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…research shows that young children are highly susceptible to the negative effects of suggestions, particularly when suggestions occur after a delay (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Holliday, Douglas, & Hayes, 1999; Marche, 1999), when details are suggested repeatedly (Melnyk & Bruck, 2004), when the…”
BackgroundShapiro, L. R., & Purdy, T. L. (2005) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1093 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Memory and Knowledge Development
Schneider, W., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2005) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781848608306.n17 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Lockhart, K. L., Goddu, M. K., Smith, E. D., & Keil, F. C. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12469 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“These sourcemonitoring failures are more frequent in children (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Drummey & Newcombe, 2002; Gopnik & Graf, 1988; O’Neill & Gopnik, 1991; Roberts, 2002) and raise the possibility that even as children massively rely on knowledge transmitted by others, they might not have much…”
BackgroundCandel, I., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., & Muris, P. (2000) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160008410832 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Generative processing and false memories: When there is no cost.
Soraci, S. A., Carlin, M. T., Toglia, M. P., et al. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.4.511 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Children's Memory of a Naturalistic Event Following Misinformation
Schwartz-Kenney, B. M., & Goodman, G. S. (1999) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0301_5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Roebers, C. M., & Schneider, W. (2001) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151001166227 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Adults’ Suggestibility and Memory Performance
Eisen, M. L., Winograd, E., & Qin, J. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602251-15 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Setting Realistic Expectations: Developmental Characteristics, Capacities and Limitations
Lamb, M. E., Malloy, L. C., & Rooy, D. J. L. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781119998495.ch2 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Polczyk, R. (2017) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2017-0045 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“In most research, the finding that many participants fail to correctly monitor the source of information in the misinformation paradigm has been confirmed (e.g. Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Belli, Lindsay, Gales, & McCarthy, 1994; Lindsay, 1990; Mitchell & Zaragoza, 1996, 2001; Niedźwieńska, 2002).”
Background
- Authors
- Ackil, J. K., & Zaragoza, M. S.
- Affiliations
- Gustavus Adolphus College (US)
- Kent State University (US)
- ORCID
- Zaragoza, Maria S.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1995-08
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 57-83
- ISSN
- 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2089122366
- Cited by
- 202
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 3.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh047858-03)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH47858)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- eyewitness suggestibility, source monitoring, source confusion, children's memory, age differences, developmental differences, memory distortion, eyewitness testimony
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Reality Testing, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology, Suggestion, Visual Perception
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