Cited by 203Memory Processes and InfluencesDeception detection and forensic psychologyChild and Animal Learning Development

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Developmental Differences in Eyewitness Suggestibility and Memory for Source

Ackil, Jennifer K., Zaragoza, Maria S.·1995·Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

DOI 10.1006/jecp.1995.1031

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Abstract

To what extent do children who report suggested information believe they actually remember seeing the suggested details they report? Asking whether children misremember seeing suggested items is in essence a question about children's ability to monitor the source of their memories. The current study reports the results of two experiments designed to assess potential age-related changes in subjects' ability to accurately monitor the source of suggested information either immediately or following a 1-week delay. The results of both experiments revealed that although all subjects claimed to remember seeing suggested items, the magnitude of this effect varied with age such that first-graders made more source confusions than third- and fifth-graders, who in turn made more confusions than college subjects. Our findings suggest that these age differences are not simply a function of more general age-related memory or performance deficits, but instead reflect developmental differences in the tendency to confuse suggested information for actually witnessed events.

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“Older children (10 years and above) are also likely to be misled by suggestive questions ( Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995, 1998; Duncan, Whitney, & Kunen, 1982; Pezdek & Roe, 1997; Ridley, Clifford, & Keogh, 2002; Sutherland & Hayne, 2001).”
Background
Developmental Reversals in False Memory: A New Look at the Reliability of Children’s Evidence
Brainerd, C. J. (2013) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721413484468 · Cited by 37
Perceptions of witness credibility: Variations across age
Newcombe, P. A., & Bransgrove, J. (2007) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.04.003 · Cited by 36
The Contribution of Executive Function to Source Memory Development in Early Childhood
Rajan, V., Cuevas, K., & Bell, M. A. (2013) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2013.763809 · Cited by 34
“Compared with adults, young children are also more likely to misattribute sources (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995) and perform worse on source tests when a delay is imposed (Parker, 1995).”
Developmental Underpinnings of Children's Testimony
Saywitz, K. J. (2002) · doi:10.1002/9780470713679.ch1 · Cited by 35
The relationships between child and forensic interviewer behaviours and individual differences in interviews about a medical examination
Melinder, A. M. D., & Gilstrap, L. L. (2008) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405620701210445 · Cited by 34
“…are more vulnerable to the deleterious effects of interviewers’ misleading questions than are older children and adults, with preschoolers being more susceptible to suggestive questions than older children (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Ceci & Bruck, 1995; Geddie, Fradin & Beer, 2000; Gobbo, 2000).”
Background
Age-appropriate cues facilitate source-monitoring and reduce suggestibility in 3- to 7-year-olds
Bright‐Paul, A., Jarrold, C., & Wright, D. B. (2004) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.06.001 · Cited by 33
What Children Bring to the Interview Context: Individual Differences in Children’s Event Reports
Pipe, M., & Salmon, K. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602251-16 · Cited by 32
Misconceptions about childhood sexual abuse and child witnesses: Implications for psychological experts in the courtroom
Zajac, R., Garry, M., London, K., Goodyear‐Smith, F., & Hayne, H. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.778287 · Cited by 27
“…research shows that young children are highly susceptible to the negative effects of suggestions, particularly when suggestions occur after a delay (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Holliday, Douglas, & Hayes, 1999; Marche, 1999), when details are suggested repeatedly (Melnyk & Bruck, 2004), when the…”
Background
Suggestibility and source monitoring errors: blame the interview style, interviewer consistency, and the child's personality
Shapiro, L. R., & Purdy, T. L. (2005) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1093 · Cited by 30
Memory and Knowledge Development
Schneider, W., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2005) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781848608306.n17 · Cited by 35
What Could You Really Learn on Your Own?: Understanding the Epistemic Limitations of Knowledge Acquisition
Lockhart, K. L., Goddu, M. K., Smith, E. D., & Keil, F. C. (2015) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12469 · Cited by 27
“These sourcemonitoring failures are more frequent in children (Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Drummey & Newcombe, 2002; Gopnik & Graf, 1988; O’Neill & Gopnik, 1991; Roberts, 2002) and raise the possibility that even as children massively rely on knowledge transmitted by others, they might not have much…”
Background
Measuring interrogative suggestibility in children: Reliability and validity of the bonn test of statement suggestibility
Candel, I., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., & Muris, P. (2000) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160008410832 · Cited by 28
Generative processing and false memories: When there is no cost.
Soraci, S. A., Carlin, M. T., Toglia, M. P., et al. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.29.4.511 · Cited by 27
Children's Memory of a Naturalistic Event Following Misinformation
Schwartz-Kenney, B. M., & Goodman, G. S. (1999) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0301_5 · Cited by 26
Memory for an observed event in the presence of prior misinformation: Developmental patterns of free recall and identification accuracy 1
Roebers, C. M., & Schneider, W. (2001) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151001166227 · Cited by 26
Individual Differences in Adults’ Suggestibility and Memory Performance
Eisen, M. L., Winograd, E., & Qin, J. (2001) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410602251-15 · Cited by 25
Setting Realistic Expectations: Developmental Characteristics, Capacities and Limitations
Lamb, M. E., Malloy, L. C., & Rooy, D. J. L. (2011) · doi:10.1002/9781119998495.ch2 · Cited by 26
The “memory” misinformation effect may not be caused by memory failures: Exploring memory states of misinformed subjects
Polczyk, R. (2017) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2017-0045 · Cited by 24
“In most research, the finding that many participants fail to correctly monitor the source of information in the misinformation paradigm has been confirmed (e.g. Ackil & Zaragoza, 1995; Belli, Lindsay, Gales, & McCarthy, 1994; Lindsay, 1990; Mitchell & Zaragoza, 1996, 2001; Niedźwieńska, 2002).”
Background

Authors: Ackil, J. K., & Zaragoza, M. S.
Affiliations: Gustavus Adolphus College (US)
Kent State University (US)
ORCID: Zaragoza, Maria S.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1995-08
Volume: 60
Issue: 1
Pages: 57-83
ISSN: 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1006/jecp.1995.1031
OpenAlex: W2089122366
Cited by: 202
References: 0
Citations by year: 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 3.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh047858-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH47858)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Keywords: eyewitness suggestibility, source monitoring, source confusion, children's memory, age differences, developmental differences, memory distortion, eyewitness testimony
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Reality Testing, Mental Recall, Retention, Psychology, Suggestion, Visual Perception

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Developmental Differences in Eyewitness Suggestibility and Memory for Source

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