Cited by 381Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skillsDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

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Children's Arithmetical Difficulties: Contributions from Processing Speed, Item Identification, and Short-Term Memory

Bull, Rebecca, Johnston, Rhona S.·1997·Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

DOI 10.1006/jecp.1996.2358

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Abstract

Children's arithmetical difficulties are often explained in terms of a short-term memory deficit. However, the underlying cause of this memory deficit is unclear, with some researchers suggesting a slow articulation rate and hence increased decay of information during recall, while others offer an explanation in terms of slow speed of item identification, indicating difficulty in retrieving information stored in long-term memory. General processing speed is also related to measures of short-term memory but has rarely been assessed in studies of children's arithmetic. Measures of short-term memory, processing speed, sequencing ability, and retrieval of information from long-term memory were therefore given to 7-year-old children. When reading ability was controlled for, arithmetic ability was best predicted by processing speed, with short-term memory accounting for no further unique variance. It was concluded that children with arithmetic difficulties have problems specifically in automating basic arithmetic facts which may stem from a general speed of processing deficit.

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Cálculo mental en niños y su relación con habilidades cognitivas
Formoso, J., Injoque-Ricle, I., Jacubovich, S., & Barreyro, J. (2017) · Acta de Investigación Psicológica · doi:10.1016/j.aipprr.2017.11.004 · Cited by 2
“Se ha sugerido que inﬂuye sobre la velocidad con que se recuperan hechos aritméticos y se ponen en marcha algoritmos de cómputo (Ackerman, Anhalt y Dykman, 1986; Bull y Johnston, 1997; Fuchs, Compton, Fuchs, Paulsen, Bryant y Hamlett, 2005; Fuchs et al., 2006).”
Background
Direct and Indirect Effects of Phonological Ability and Vocabulary Knowledge on Math Performance in Elementary SchoolPreprint
Kuzmina, Y. V., Евгеньевна, И. А., & Вениаминовна, А. И. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2988797 · Cited by 1
“Firstly, correlations between phonological abilities and mathematics may be explained by involvement of speech sound processes used to solve math problems (e.g. Bull & Johnston, 1997; Rourke & Conway, 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Growth in reading comprehension and mathematics achievement in primary school: A bivariate transition multilevel growth curve model approach
Anumendem, D. (2017) · doi:10.15406/bbij.2017.05.00137 · Cited by 2
Individual Differences in Children’s Paths to Arithmetical Development
Jordan, J., Wylie, J., & Mulhern, G. (2015) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199642342.013.015 · Cited by 2
An Investigative Study on the Learning Difficulties in Mathematics Encountered by Primary 4 Children: In Search of a Cognitive Equation for Mathematics Learning
Chia, N., & Kho, C. P. (2011) · Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals (JAASEP) · doi:10.64546/jaasep.134 · Cited by 2
“Other research studies (e.g., Bull & Johnston, 1997; Fuchs et al., 2008; Geary, 2007) have identified several cognitive correlates that are shown to affect basic mathematical performance that involves memory, attentionconcentration span, processing speed, and language proficiency.”
Background
An Investigation on the Error Patterns in Computation of Whole Numbers Committed by Singaporean Children with Dyscalculia
Chia, N. K. H., & Ng, A. G. T. (2010) · Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals (JAASEP) · doi:10.64546/jaasep.102 · Cited by 2
Arithmetical computation and associated neuropsychological capabilities in children, adolescents, and young adults with nonsyndromic orofacial clefts
Goodwin, J. (2017) · doi:10.17077/etd.65yd6qvd · Cited by 2
“Both children with lower mathematics achievement and children with SLD in mathematics have been shown to process novel information at a slower rate than children with normal mathematics performance (Bull & Johnston, 1997; Murphy, Mazzocco, Hanich, & Early, 2007).”
Background
Math Problem-Solving
Unruh, S. M., & McKellar, N. A. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52645-4_9 · Cited by 1
Cognitive processes and math performance: a study with children at third grade of basic education
Campos, I. S., Almeida, L. S., Ferreira, A. I., Martinez, L. F., & Ramalho, G. (2012) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-012-0121-x · Cited by 37
“Bull and Johnston (1997) demonstrated that 7-year-old low mathematics achievers and high mathematics achievers differed in phonological loop measures, but this difference disappeared when controlling for reading ability.”
Background
Behavioral attention and academic achievement: a comprehensive meta-analysis
Gioia, A. R., Miciak, J., Peng, P., Gallagher, M. W., Williams, M., Farrell, A., Salentine, C. M., Boada, C. E., Dragoi, I., Harmouch, S., et al. (2026) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2026.2634751 · Cited by 1
“…(Fuchs et al., 2005; Gray et al., 2015; Sims et al., 2016), a number of studies find that the strongest relation between inattention and math is with regard to math-fact fluency (Ackerman et al., 1986; Biederman et al., 2005; Bull & Johnston, 1997; Capodieci & Martinussen, 2017; Gray et al., 2015).”
Mathematics Achievement in Women With and Without ADHD: Childhood Predictors and Developmental Trajectories Into Adulthood
Henry, L. N., Gross, R. A., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2025) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194241301044 · Cited by 3
“It supports math calculation in typical development (e.g., Bull & Johnston, 1997; Caemmerer et al., 2018), even on untimed tasks (Child et al., 2019; Willcutt et al., 2013).”
Working Memory and Automaticity in Relation to Mental Addition among American Elementary Students
Yu, Q., Ding, Y., Zusho, A., Chun, Z., & Wang, Y. (2023) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2023.2261284 · Cited by 2
“When a student fails to automate basic arithmetic operations, performance on complex arithmetic operations will suffer, because it is contingent on the fluency of simple arithmetic (Bull & Johnston, 1997).”
An examination of third- and fourth-graders’ equivalence knowledge after classroom instruction
Adrien, E., Osana, H. P., Watchorn, R., Bisanz, J., & Sherman, J. (2021) · Journal of Numerical Cognition · doi:10.5964/jnc.6913 · Cited by 1
“…2007; McKenzie et al., 2003; Raghubar et al., 2010; Rasmussen & Bisanz, 2005) and arithmetic fluency on strategy development and problem-solving speed (Bull & Johnston, 1997; Carr & Alexeev, 2011; Royer et al., 1999), this mediation hypothesis is plausible and should be tested in future research.”
Background
COGNITIVE SKILLS AND MATHEMATICAL PERFORMANCE, MEMORY (SHORT-TERM, LONG-TERM, WORKING), MENTAL PERFORMANCE AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MATHEMATICAL PERFORMANCE OF PRE-SCHOOL STUDENTS
Manginas, J., Nikolantonakis, C., & Papageorgioy, A. (2017) · European Journal of Education Studies · doi:10.46827/ejes.v0i0.1257 · Cited by 1
“However, some studies have argued that the articulatory loop does not play an important role in mathematical performance (Bull & Johnston, 1997; McLean & Hitch, 1999; Reuhkala, 2001).”
The Effects of Training on Computational Fluency and Working Memory on Students’ Achievement and Retention in Algebra
Parcutilo, J. O., & Luna, C. A. (2016) · American Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12691/education-4-18-2 · Cited by 1
Predictores del rendimiento aritmético en 4º de Educación Primaria
Iglesias-Sarmiento, V., Gil, S. A., Rodríguez, Á. C., & Deaño, M. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental and Educational Psychology Revista INFAD de psicología · doi:10.17060/ijodaep.2014.n1.v3.497 · Cited by 1
Young children and Mathematics : A Relook at Mathematical Development from Sociocultural Perspectives
Ong, M. Y. L. (2016) · Hokkaido University Collection of Scholarly and Academic Papers (Hokkaido University) · doi:10.14943/b.edu.126.43 · Cited by 1
“…and development of numerical skills ( Huttenlocher, Jordan, & Levin, 1994 ; Starkey & Cooper, 1995 ) , sociocultural influences on mathematical cognition ( Guberman, 2004 ; Saxe, 1991 ) , and learning and performance disabilities in mathematics ( Bull & Johnston, 1997 ; Jordan & Montani, 1997 ) .”
Examination of Addition and Subtraction Performances of Students with and without Learning Disabilities
Kumaş, Ö. A., & Ergül, C. (2017) · doi:10.15345/iojes.2017.03.016 · Cited by 1
“Bu öğrencilerin zayıf işlem becerilerine ve sayı bilgisine sahip olmalarının dört işlemde yaşadıkları güçlüğün temeli olduğu düşünülmektedir (Bull ve Johnston, 1997; Geary, 1990; Geary, Bow-Thomas ve Yao, 1992; Geary, Brown ve Samaranayake, 1991; Geary, Hamson ve Hoard, 2000; Goldman, Pellegrino ve…”
Capturing diversity in the classroom: Uncovering patterns of difficulty with simple addition
Hopkins, S., & de Villiers, C. D. (2015) · Mathematics education library · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05978-5_13 · Cited by 1
An exploratory factor analysis of the cognitive functioning of first-year bachelor students with dyslexia
Callens, M., Tops, W., Stevens, M., & Brysbaert, M. (2014) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-013-0088-6 · Cited by 21
Cognitive predictors of arithmetic, reading, and spelling in Brazilian Portuguese-speaking children
de Magalhães, C. G., Mervis, C. Β., & Cardoso‐Martins, C. (2020) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-020-10062-0 · Cited by 15
Cognitive Predictors of Early Algebra Performance in Students With and Without Autism.
Polo-Blanco, I., Pitta-Pantazi, D., Goñi-Cervera, J., & Chimoni, M. (2026) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-026-07513-y
Expertise embodied – Rethinking mathematical expertise as ‘Ways of Being’
Stenberg, E., Haavold, P. Ø., & Pfuhl, G. (2026) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2026.102318
The effect of IELEP on the math skills of preschool children
Mumcu, T., & Aydoğan, Y. (2026) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2026.2667935
Addressing mathematical computation difficulties in individuals born very preterm, through working memory, processing speed, and selective attention: A casual mediation analysis
Mills, T., Middleton, M., Pascoe, L., Spencer-Smith, M., Nguyen, T.-N.-N., & Anderson, P. J. (2026) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617726102033
“It has been theorized that slowed processing speed may impact on mathematical computational skills due to the slowed learning and automaticity of basic numerical facts (Bull & Johnston, 1997).”
CORRELATIONAL ANALYSIS BETWEEN APPROXIMATE NUMERICAL ESTIMATE AND MATH ABILITIES: A STUDY WITH FIRST-GRADE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Mielo, E. G., & Prado, P. S. T. D. (2022) · Psychological Applications and Trends · doi:10.36315/2022inpact015
“It must be considered that several factors influence school performance in mathematics and that, in children with dyscalculia, the numerical approximation system has low accuracy (Bull & Johnston, 1997; Geary, 1993; Koontz & Berch, 1996).”
Background

Authors: Bull, R., & Johnston, R. S.
Affiliations: University of St Andrews (GB)
ORCID: Bull, Rebecca
Venue: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1997-04
Volume: 65
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-24
ISSN: 0022-0965 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1006/jecp.1996.2358
OpenAlex: W1998494999
Cited by: 381
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 19
FWCI: 5.13
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: arithmetic difficulties, processing speed, short-term memory, item identification, arithmetic fact retrieval, arithmetic fact automation, reading skills
MeSH terms: Analysis of Variance, Child, Cognition, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Learning Disabilities, Male, Mathematics, Memory Disorders, Memory, Short-Term, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Reaction Time, Reading, Mental Recall, Regression Analysis, Speech

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Children's Arithmetical Difficulties: Contributions from Processing Speed, Item Identification, and Short-Term Memory

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