The costal skeleton of Shanidar 3 and a reappraisal of Neandertal thoracic morphology
Abstract
For over a century, Neandertal rib remains have engendered frequent discussions of "barrel-shaped" thoraces, largely in the absence of systematic comparison and hard data. We present here a description of the relatively complete ribcage of the Near Eastern Shanidar 3 Neandertal. We also furnish metric and non-metric comparisons of the Shanidar 3 ribs with other Near Eastern and European Neandertals, the Nariokotome (Homo erectus/ergaster) specimen, Levantine archaic/early modern humans, early and later European modern humans, and a sample of recent Euroamerican males. It is clear from these comparisons that Neandertals share with modern humans the fundamentally human thoracic "bauplan" that first evolved in the early Pleistocene. Yet it is also apparent that the ribcage of Neandertals differ in several anatomical details from those of fully modern humans. Rib curvature, posterior angle, mid-shaft cross-sectional size and shape, and muscle scarring varies considerably among Neandertals and across all samples when considered in isolated ribs. However, normalized metric and discrete patterning across the greater thorax clearly distinguishes Neandertals from our comparative samples. This is most marked in the inferior thorax where Neandertals (and probably earlier Homo) exhibit larger, more rounded and rugose ribs, and a greater costal area (thoracic volume). Greater lower rib cross-sectional robusticity and muscle scarring indicates relatively elevated ventilatory levels. Greater thoracic volume in Neandertals probably reflects greater body mass compared with modern humans since lung volume scales isometrically to body mass among mammals. Neandertal and modern human pulmonary capacity, normalized for body mass differences, was therefore roughly equivalent in the context of detailed differences in thoracic shape. To the extent that cold-climate adaptation is involved, Near Eastern Neandertals appear less "hyper-polar" in thoracic shape than their European counterparts as is also true for several other body proportion measures that are clinally distributed across the known Neandertal range.
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The later fusion of the neurocentral synchondrosis may be related to the characteristically expanded Neandertal torso or to ongoing growth of the neuraxis.
“While the implications of this are unknown, it may be related to the characteristically expanded Neandertal torso (36,37) or to ongoing growth of the neuraxis.”
From The growth pattern of Neandertals, reconstructed from a juvenile skeleton from El Sidrón (Spain) (2017) · cites this paper as [36]
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The costal skeleton of Homo antecessor: preliminary results
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Carretero, J. M., Lorenzo, C., Arsuaga, J. L., de Castro, J. M. B., & Carbonell, E. (2010) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.023 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“neanderthalensis had a capacious thorax, as previously proposed by other authors (Franciscus and Churchill, 2002; Weinstein, 2008).”
BackgroundEnergetics and the Origin of Modern Humans
Froehle, A. W., Yokley, T. R., & Churchill, S. E. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118659991.ch8 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationGarcía‐Martínez, D., Bastir, M., Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Maureille, B., Golovanova, L. V., Doronichev, V. B., Akazawa, T., Kondo, O., Ishida, H., Gascho, D., et al. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abb4377 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“However, this is confusing because the ribcages of Homo erectus from Nariokotome and the MH ribcage have also been called “barrel-shaped” [see references in the work by Franciscus and Churchill (22)].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWeinstein, K. J. (2007) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.08.010 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
García-Martínez, D., Torres-Tamayo, N., Torres-Sánchez, I., García-Río, F., Rosas, A., & Bastir, M. (2018) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0125-4 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Brief Communication: Lumbar lordosis in extinct hominins: Implications of the pelvic incidence
Been, E., Gómez‐Olivencia, A., & Kramer, P. A. (2014) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22507 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Thoracic skeletal morphology and high‐altitude hypoxia in Andean prehistory
Weinstein, K. J. (2007) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.20619 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Between a rock and a cold place: Neanderthal biocultural cold adaptations
Ocobock, C., Lacy, S. A., & Niclou, A. (2021) · Evolutionary Anthropology (print) · doi:10.1002/evan.21894 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“could have conferred larger oxygen intake capacity, which would have supported the high energy demand.(17,18,22,23,25,28,34,38,39,50)”
Backgroundde León, M. S. P., & Zollikofer, C. P. E. (2006) · Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthroplogy series/Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology series · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5121-0_5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
The mesosternum of the Regourdou 1 Neandertal revisited
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Franciscus, R. G., Couture, C., Maureille, B., & Arsuaga, J. L. (2012) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.01.004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Additional anatomical differences in the costal skeleton of Neandertals compared with modern humans include the position of the iliocostalis line and the greater thickness of the shaft of the ribs (see Franciscus and Churchill (2002); and Gómez-Olivencia et al. (2009) for more specific information).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationGarcía‐Martínez, D., Bastir, M., Huguet, R., Estalrrich, A., García‐Tabernero, A., Ríos, L., Cunha, E. M., Vives, M. D. L. R., & Rosas, A. (2017) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.06.003 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…or angles have subsequently been performed, resulting in very complete and detailed comparative studies of Neanderthal ribs, improving the understanding of Neanderthal rib cage morphology greatly (Franciscus and Churchill, 2002; Weinstein, 2008; GómezOlivencia et al., 2009; Gómez-Olivencia, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential3D geometric morphometrics of thorax variation and allometry in Hominoidea
Bastir, M., García‐Martínez, D., Williams, S. A., Recheis, W. A., Torres‐Sánchez, I., Rio, F. G., Oishi, M., & Ogihara, N. (2017) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.08.002 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Gómez‐Olivencia, A. (2012) · Annales de Paléontologie · doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2012.07.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Smith, F. H. (2013) · Journal of Anthropological Research · doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0069.202 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“In addition, Neandertal trunks were characterized by very broad pelvic girdles (Ruff and Walker 1993) and barrel-shaped thoraxes (Franciscus and Churchill 2002).”
BackgroundNouveaux restes humains provenant du gisement de Regourdou (Montignac-sur-Vézère, Dordogne, France)
Maureille, B., Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Couture, C., Madelaine, S., & Holliday, T. W. (2015) · Paléo · doi:10.4000/paleo.2937 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
13 Neanderthals and Their Contemporaries
Harvati, K. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-33761-4_56 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Sequencing human ribs into anatomical order by quantitative multivariate methods
Cirillo, J., & Henneberg, M. (2012) · HOMO · doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2012.04.001 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The Human Postcranial Remains from Mladeč
Trinkaus, E., Smith, F. H., Stockton, T., & Shackelford, L. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-49294-9_13 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Eco‐geographic adaptations in the human ribcage throughout a 3D geometric morphometric approach
García‐Martínez, D., Nalla, S., Ferreira, M. T., Guichón, R. A., del Campo, M. D. D., & Bastir, M. (2018) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23433 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The presacral spine of the La Ferrassie 1 Neandertal: a revised inventory
Gómez‐Olivencia, A. (2012) · Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d anthropologie de Paris · doi:10.1007/s13219-012-0064-4 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Thoracic Cage of KSD-VP-1/1
Latimer, B. M., Lovejoy, C. O., Spurlock, L. B., & Haile‐Selassie, Y. (2015) · Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthroplogy series/Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology series · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7429-1_7 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Humans preserve non-human primate pattern of climatic adaptation
Buck, L. T., Groote, I. D., Hamada, Y., & Stock, J. T. (2018) · Quaternary Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.05.032 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Brachial and crural indices, bi-iliac breadth and rib cage shape have a close relationship with mean annual temperatures and populations living in cooler areas tend to have more barrel-shaped chests and broader hips (Ruff, 1994, 2002; Ruff et al., 1997; Franciscus and Churchill, 2002; Stock, 2006).”
Asian Homo erectus converges in time
Ciochon, R. L., & Bettis, E. A. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/458153a · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Neanderthals and Their Contemporaries
Harvati, K. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27800-6_56-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“two curvatures in dorsal view; and an elongated and thin pubic ramus (Boule 1911/ 1913; Trinkaus 1983; Ruff 1991, 1993, 1994; Holliday 1997a, b; Ruff et al. 1997; Churchill 1998; Rosenberg 1998; Trinkaus and Ruff 1998; Pearson 2000; Voisin 2000; Niewoehner 2001; Franciscus and Churchill 2002; Weaver 2003; Sawyer and M…”
BackgroundMatos, V. (2009) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.21032 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
García‐Martínez, D., Radovčić, D., Radovčić, J., Cofran, Z., Rosas, A., & Bastir, M. (2018) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.05.009 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Testing biomechanical models of human lumbar lordosis variability
Castillo, E. R., Hsu, C., Mair, R. W., & Lieberman, D. E. (2017) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23189 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The use of ethnographic data in Neanderthal archaeological research
French, J. C. (2018) · Hunter Gatherer Research · doi:10.3828/hgr.2018.3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
External and internal ontogenetic changes in the first rib
García‐Martínez, D., Gil, O. G., Cambra‐Moo, Ó., Pérez, M. C., Rodriguez, M. A., Bastir, M., & Martín, A. G. (2017) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23313 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Body proportions and environmental adaptation in gorillas
Ruff, C. B., Junno, J., Burgess, M. L., Canington, S. L., Harper, C. M., Mudakikwa, A. B., & McFarlin, S. C. (2021) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24443 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Neanderthal axial and appendicular remains from Moula‐Guercy, Ardèche, France
Mersey, B., Brudvik, K., Black, M. T., & Defleur, A. R. (2013) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22388 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Torres‐Tamayo, N., Schlager, S., García‐Martínez, D., Sanchis‐Gimeno, J. A., Nalla, S., Ogihara, N., Oishi, M., Martelli, S. A., & Bastir, M. (2020) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102854 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
A 3D form comparative analysis of the Neandertal glenoid fossa in the context of the genus Homo
Rodriguez-Perez, F. J., Rosas, A., García‐Martínez, D., Bastir, M., García‐Tabernero, A., Estalrrich, A., Huguet, R., & Pastor, J. F. (2017) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.031 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Pomeroy, E. (2023) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.111420 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Thoracic adaptations for ventilation during locomotion in humans and other mammals
Callison, W. É., Holowka, N. B., & Lieberman, D. E. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.189357 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In contrast, fossils in the genusHomo, includingHomo erectus (KNMWT15000) andHomo neanderthalensis, typically have more barrelshaped or bell-shaped thoraxes (Schmid, 1983; Trinkaus, 1983; Jellema et al., 1993; Franciscus and Churchill, 2002; Sawyer and Maley, 2005; Gómez-Olivencia et al., 2009; Haile-Selassie et al.,…”
BackgroundThe costal skeleton of the Regourdou 1 Neandertal
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Holliday, T. W., Madelaine, S., Couture, C., & Maureille, B. (2018) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.12.005 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Weinstein, K. J. (2017) · Quaternary International · doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.06.004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“I also measured rib area, the area encompassed within each rib, for ribs 1-9 based on the equation defined by Franciscus and Churchill (2002).”
MethodStructural effects of variation in the human clavicle
Melillo, S. M., Gunz, P., Coqueugniot, H., Reske, S., & Hublin, J. (2019) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23787 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Comparative anatomy and 3D geometric morphometrics of the El Sidrón atlases (C1)
Palancar, C. A., Torres‐Tamayo, N., García‐Martínez, D., García‐Tabernero, A., Rosas, A., & Bastir, M. (2020) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102897 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The costal skeleton of the Neandertal individual of La Chapelle-aux-Saints 1
Gómez‐Olivencia, A. (2015) · Annales de Paléontologie · doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2015.04.005 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“, 2010), we lack a comlete inventory and detailed morphological descriptions of the lements of LC1’s costal skeleton similar to those published for ther Neandertal specimens and collections (e.g., Arensburg, 1991; ranciscus and Churchill, 2002).”
Habibi, T., & Ruban, D. A. (2017) · Journal of African Earth Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.02.003 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., & Been, E. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19349-2_9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Spinal Pathologies in Fossil Hominins
Haeusler, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19349-2_10 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Maki, J. (2013) · Open Scholarship Institutional Repository (Washington University in St. Louis) · doi:10.7936/k7ns0rvc · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Neanderthals and Their Contemporaries
Harvati, K. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39979-4_56 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Crossroads of the Old World: Late Hominin Evolution in Western Asia
Franciscus, R. G., & Holliday, T. W. (2013) · The Origins of Modern Humans · doi:10.1002/9781118659991.ch2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationBastir, M. (2019) · Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d anthropologie de Paris · doi:10.3166/bmsap-2019-0055 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Variation in human 3D trunk shape and its functional implications in hominin evolution
Bastir, M., González‐Ruiz, J. M., Rueda, J., Garrido-López, G., Gómez-Recio, M., Beyer, B., Juan, A. F. S., & Navarro, E. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-15344-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The inclusion criteria were the following: (1) Age between 18 and 30 years; (2) volunteers athletes had to be either long distance runners or team sports players (e.”
BackgroundHarvati, K. (2010) · Evolution Education and Outreach · doi:10.1007/s12052-010-0250-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Neanderthal skeletons are also characterized by ribcages which are broad and deep at the bottom and narrow at the top (Franciscus and Churchill 2002; Sawyer and Maley 2005); relatively short distal limbs (i.e., lower arms and legs) and large articular ends of the tibia (shin) and femur (thigh)…”
BackgroundLópez‐Rey, J. M., García‐Martínez, D., & Bastir, M. (2024) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2024.103629 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
García‐Martínez, D., Bastir, M., Villa, C., Rio, F. G., Torres‐Sánchez, I., Recheis, W. A., Barash, A., Khonsari, R. H., O’Higgins, P., Meyer, M. R., et al. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67664-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Harvati, K. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118332344.ch28 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Torres‐Tamayo, N., Bastir, M., VanSickle, C., García‐Tabernero, A., de la Rasilla, M., & Rosas, A. (2025) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2025.103666 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Reevaluation of ‘endocostal ossifications’ on the Kebara 2 Neanderthal ribs
García‐Martínez, D., Martín, M. C., Martín, A. G., Cambra‐Moo, Ó., Barash, A., & Bastir, M. (2018) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.04.011 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
López‐Rey, J. M., Cambra‐Moo, Ó., Martín, A. G., González, N. C., Sánchez‐Andrés, Á., Tawane, M., Cazenave, M., Williams, S. A., Bastir, M., & García‐Martínez, D. (2022) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24491 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
López‐Rey, J. M., Cambra‐Moo, Ó., Martín, A. G., González, N. C., Sánchez‐Andrés, Á., Tawane, M., Cazenave, M., Williams, S. A., Bastir, M., & García‐Martínez, D. (2023) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24844 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A hominin first rib discovered at the Sterkfontein Caves, South Africa
Tawane, M., García‐Martínez, D., Eyre, J., Bastir, M., Berger, L. R., Schmid, P., Nalla, S., & Williams, S. A. (2016) · South African Journal of Science · doi:10.17159/sajs.2016/20150278 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Two newly identified Mousterian human rib fragments from Combe-Grenal (Domme, France)
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., Garralda, M. D., Vandermeersch, B., Madelaine, S., Arsuaga, J. L., & Maureille, B. (2013) · Paléo · doi:10.4000/paleo.2653 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Geometric morphometrics of 4D motion data: a proof of concept for applications in palaeoanthropology
Gómez-Recio, M., González‐Ruiz, J. M., Rueda, J., Juan, A. F. S., Navarro, E., Beyer, B., & Bastir, M. (2022) · Spanish Journal of Palaeontology · doi:10.7203/sjp.25648 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As the principal axial structure of the body, its form and function (including motion) are highly interesting in the context of the locomotor, respiratory and energetic points of view (Franciscus & Churchill, 2002; Bastir, 2004, 2008; Froehle & Churchill, 2009; Beyer, 2016; Chapman et al., 2017).”
Kelly, A. P., Ocobock, C. J., Butaric, L. N., & Maddux, S. D. (2023) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24692 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Beyond skeletal studies: A computational analysis of nasal airway function in climate adaptation
Bastir, M., Sanz‐Prieto, D., Burgos, M. A., Pérez‐Ramos, A., Heuzé, Y., Maréchal, L., Evteev, A., Toro‐Ibacache, V., & Esteban‐Ortega, F. (2024) · American Journal of Biological Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.24932 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Weinstein, K. J. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8175-1_16 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Evolutionary Perspective on Narmada Hominin Fossils
Sankhyan, A. R. (2020) · Advances in Anthropology · doi:10.4236/aa.2020.103013 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Therefore, it may draw closer to the “late archaic” hominins (Carretero et al., 2009; Franciscus & Churchill, 2002; Weaver, 2009), e.g. Tabun 3, Qafze 9 and Skhul 5.”
BackgroundHominin Fossil Remains from the Narmada Valley
Sankhyan, A. R. (2016) · doi:10.1002/9781119055280.ch6 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Holliday, T. W., Ocobock, C. J., Cowgill, L. W., & Maddux, S. D. (2025) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.70150 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Neandertals have also long been hypothesized to possess voluminous ribcages, a feature that likely positively covaries with pelvic breadth (Churchill 1998; Franciscus and Churchill 2002; López-Rey et al. 2025; and see below).”
Gough's Cave 1 (Somerset, England): a study of the axial skeleton
Churchill, S. E., & Holliday, T. W. (2002) · Bulletin of the Natural History Museum Geology Series · doi:10.1017/s0968046202000013 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationLópez‐Rey, J. M., García‐Martínez, D., Martelli, S. A., Beyer, B., Palancar, C. A., Torres‐Sánchez, I., Rio, F. G., & Bastir, M. (2023) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2023.103442 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Sima de los Huesos thorax and lumbar spine: Selected traits and state‐of‐the‐art
Gómez‐Olivencia, A., & Arsuaga, J. L. (2024) · The Anatomical Record · doi:10.1002/ar.25414 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Small and isolated: ecology and fragmentation of Neanderthals
Melchionna, M. (2018) · Saverio Bartolini Lucenti eBooks · doi:10.32774/fosreppal.20.1810.075356 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Franciscus, R. G., & Churchill, S. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Iowa (US)
- Duke University (US)
- ORCID
- Churchill, Steven E.
- Venue
- Journal of Human Evolution
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-03
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 303-356
- ISSN
- 0047-2484 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1982172231
- Cited by
- 124
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 5.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Human Evolution (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Pleistocene-Era Hominins and Archaeology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Evolution and Paleontology Studies
- Keywords
- Neanderthals, thoracic shape, thoracic volume, lung capacity, body mass, cold climate adaptation, Homo erectus
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Adult, Animals, Anthropology, Physical, Anthropometry, Cold Climate, Female, Fossils, Humans, Iraq, Male, Phylogeny, Reference Values, Ribs, Hominidae, Bone Remodeling
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