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Some Alkyl Hydroxy Benzoate Preservatives (Parabens) Are Estrogenic
Abstract
The inadvertent estrogenicity of certain synthetic chemicals, and their subsequent effects on the endocrine system of humans and wildlife, is of concern. In this paper we report findings from in vitro and in vivo (uterotrophic) studies which confirm that a range of alkyl hydroxy benzoate preservatives (parabens) are weakly estrogenic. In a receptor-binding assay, butylparaben was able to compete with 3H-estradiol for binding to the rat estrogen receptor with an affinity approximately 5 orders of magnitude lower than that of diethylstilboestrol, and between 1 and 2 orders of magnitude less than nonylphenol. In an in vitro yeast-based estrogen assay, the four most widely used parabens (namely methyl-, ethyl-, propyl-, and butylparaben) were all found to be weakly estrogenic with the most potent (butylparaben) being 10,000-fold less potent than 17 beta-estradiol. The estrogenic activity of parabens was inhibited by 4-hydroxy tamoxifen in vitro, illustrating the requirement of these chemicals to interact with the estrogen receptor in order to activate the yeast. When administered orally to immature rats, the parabens were inactive. However, subcutaneous administration of butylparaben produced a positive uterotrophic response in vivo, although it was approximately 100,000 times less potent than 17 beta-estradiol. Given their use in a wide range of commercially available topical preparations, it is suggested that the safety in use of these chemicals should be reassessed, with parti…
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“Parabens bind human estrogen receptors with affinities 10,000 to 1,000,000 times less than estradiol1112”
From Knowledge and Behavior Regarding Cosmetics in Koreans Visiting Dermatology Clinics (2017) · cites this paper as [11]
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Farajzadeh, M. A., Aghdam, M. B., Mogaddam, M. R. A., & Nabil, A. A. A. (2018) · Journal of Separation Science · doi:10.1002/jssc.201701022 · Cited by 12
Kim, M. J., Kim, C.-H., Seo, Y., An, M.-J., Lee, J., Shin, G.-S., Hwang, J. Y., Park, J., Kim, J., Hwang, S. Y., et al. (2019) · Archives of Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s00204-019-02629-w · Cited by 12
Gong, Z., Qian, L., Shao, S., Fan, B., Peng, J., Lu, K. Q., & Gao, S. (2022) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2022.135034 · Cited by 12
Hubbard, T. D., Brix, A. E., Blystone, C. R., Mcintyre, B., Shockley, K. R., CUNNY, H. C., Suramya Waidyanatha, A., Turner, K. J., McBride, S. J., & Roberts, G. (2020) · Reproductive Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2020.07.006 · Cited by 12
Reply to Robert Golden and Jay Gandy
Jeffrey, A. M., & Williams, G. M. (2004) · Journal of Applied Toxicology · doi:10.1002/jat.987 · Cited by 12
Wakefield‐Rann, R. (2017) · Environmental footprints and eco-design of products and processes · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-2917-2_10 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Routledge, E. J., Parker, J., Odum, J., Ashby, J., & Sumpter, J. P.
- Affiliations
- Brunel University of London (GB)
- Zeneca Central Toxicology Laboratory (GB)
- Venue
- Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1998-11
- Volume
- 153
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 12-19
- ISSN
- 0041-008X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1999057925
- Cited by
- 721
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 10.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Effects and risks of endocrine disrupting chemicals
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Endocrinology › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Phytoestrogen effects and research
- Keywords
- parabens, estrogenic activity, butylparaben, estrogen receptor binding, uterotrophic response, endocrine disruption, human exposure assessment
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Binding, Competitive, Female, Food Preservatives, Organ Size, Parabens, Receptors, Estrogen, Tamoxifen, Uterus, Yeasts, Rats
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