Phytoecdysteroids: Properties, Biological Activity and Applications

More than 500 different PEs are found in over 100 terrestrial plants.

“More than 500 different PEs are found in over 100 terrestrial plants.”

PEs are found in algae, fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

“Additionally, PEs are found in algae, fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.”

20-hydroxyecdysone is the most common and widely used PE.

“However, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20-HE) is the most common and widely used [4,5,6,7].”

PEs are found in more than 100 terrestrial fern, gymnosperm, and angiosperm plant families.

“PEs are found in more than 100 terrestrial fern, gymnosperm, and angiosperm plant families [4,7,18,23,24].”

Variations in the number, positioning, and orientation of hydroxyl and conjugating groups occur in the steroid ring structure, and sometimes an oxo group occurs at C-2, C-6, C-12, C-17, C-20, or C-22.

“Additionally, there are some variations of the hydroxyl and conjugating group (such as position, number, and orientation) in the steroid ring structure; sometimes, an oxo group occurs in C-2, C-6, C-12, C-17, C-20, or C-22.”

PEs are generally found in a free state or in conjugated or bound forms with organic acids in ester form, with sugars as glucosides, with sulfates, or in a methyl ether or isopropylidene form.

“PEs are generally found in a free-state or in conjugated or bound forms with organic acids in ester form (such as benzoate, acetate, crotonate, coumarate, and cinnamate), with sugars in the form of glucosides (such as galactose, glucose, and xylose), with sulfates, or in a methyl ether form or isopropylidene.”

About 200 PEs are found in different plant genera, such as Polypodium, Ajuga, Silene, and Podocarpus.

“About 200 PEs are found in different plant genera, such as Polypodium, Ajuga, Silene, and Podocarpus [7,8].”

Cyanotis vaga and Cyanotis arachnoidea belong to monocot species, and several species of ferns that belong to Polypodium are rich sources of ECs.

“Cyanotis vaga and Cyanotis arachnoidea belong to monocot species, and several species of ferns that belong to Polypodium are rich sources of ECs [7,8,30,31,32,33,34,35].”

Taxons used in traditional medicines such as Leuzea carthamoides, Ajuga turkestanica, and several Pfaffia species have abundant ECs in their roots.

“The taxons that are used in traditional medicines such as Leuzea carthamoides, Ajuga turkestanica, and several Pfaffia species have abundant ECs in their roots.”

Application of BRs mitigates stress by increasing photosynthetic membrane stability, reorganization of major photosynthetic pigment complexes, and slightly unstacking the thylakoid membrane; PEs show similar functions.

“The application of BRs mitigates stress by increasing photosynthetic membrane stability, reorganization of major photosynthetic pigment complexes, and slightly unstacking the thylakoid membrane [215,216]; PEs show similar functions [19,183].”

PEs and BRs participate in plant growth and developmental processes by modulating photosynthetic traits.

“PEs and BRs participate in plant growth and developmental processes by modulating photosynthetic traits.”