Cited by 465Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentMental Health Treatment and AccessMental Health Research Topics

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Recent increases in depressive symptoms among US adolescents: trends from 1991 to 2018

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Keyes, Katherine M., Gary, Dahsan, O’Malley, Patrick M., Hamilton, Ava, Schulenberg, John·2019·Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology

DOI 10.1007/s00127-019-01697-8PMC PMC7015269

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Abstract

Background Mental health problems and mental health related mortality have increased among adolescents, particularly girls. These trends have implications for etiology and prevention and suggest new and emerging risk factors in need of attention. The present study estimated age, period, and cohort effects in depressive symptoms among US nationally representative samples of school attending adolescents from 1991 to 2018.Methods Data are drawn from 1991 to 2018 Monitoring the Future yearly cross-sectional surveys of 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students (N = 1,260,159). Depressive symptoms measured with four questions that had consistent wording and data collection procedures across all 28 years. Age-period-cohort effects estimated using the hierarchical age-period-cohort models.Results Among girls, depressive symptoms decreased from 1991 to 2011, then reversed course, peaking in 2018; these increases reflected primarily period effects, which compared to the mean of all periods showed a gradual increase starting in 2012 and peaked in 2018 (estimate = 1.15, p < 0.01). Cohort effects were minimal, indicating that increases are observed across all age groups. Among boys, trends were similar although the extent of the increase is less marked compared to girls; there was a declining cohort effect among recently born cohorts, suggesting that increases in depressive symptoms among boys are slower for younger boys compared to older boys in recent years. Trends were generally similar by race/ethnicity and parental education, with a positive cohort effect for Hispanic girls born 1999-2004.Conclusions Depressive symptoms are increasing among teens, especially among girls, consistent with increases in depression and suicide. Population variation in psychiatric disorder symptoms highlight the importance of current environmental determinants of psychiatric disorder risk, and provide evidence of emerging risk factors that may be shaping a new and concerning trend in adolescent mental health.

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“This is an important limitation as increases in mental health problems were already apparent prior to the COVID-19 pandemic [12 e 14].”
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“Consistent with our findings, previous studies conducted in the United States [60] and Iceland [61] had also reported a gradual increase in depressive symptoms among adolescents.”
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“These substantial symptoms unrelated to the pandemic reflect consistently increasing pre‐pandemic trends in depressive and anxious symptoms (Goodwin et al., 2020; Keyes et al., 2019).”
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“…distress over the past decade in Ontario mirrors the doubling in depression observed among US adolescents during a similar time period [3] and builds on literature across high-income countries from the past two decades documenting increases in adolescent emotional concerns [1, 2, 4–6].”
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“This is consistent with evidence from three other nationally representative datasets (Keyes et al., 2019; Lu, 2019; Pontes et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResult
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“Although evidence from low-income countries is limited, studies from high-income countries including the United States (US; Keyes et al., 2019; Lu, 2019), New Zealand (Fleming et al., 2014), the United Kingdom (UK; Patalay & Gage, 2019; Sweeting et al., 2010) and other European countries…”
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“69 If Haidt’s account is correct, it would cast a very bad light indeed on surveillance capitalism, specifically 67 See e.g. Burstein et al., 2019; Keyes et al., 2019; Twenge, et al., 2019; for reviews, refer to Haidt, 2024, ch. 1; Haidt et al., ongoing; Twenge, 2023, p. 392–400.”
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“Adolescents face multiple developmental challenges during the transition to adulthood, such as the formation of a personal sense of identity and the establishment of stable peer relationships, and thus, considered a critical period for studying the occurrence of depressive symptoms [9,10].”
Background

Authors: Keyes, K. M., Gary, D., O’Malley, P. M., Hamilton, A., & Schulenberg, J.
Affiliations: Universidad Mayor (CL)
Columbia University (US)
University of Michigan (US)
Corresponding author: Keyes, Katherine M.
ORCID: Keyes, Katherine M.
O’Malley, Patrick M.
Hamilton, Ava
Schulenberg, John
Venue: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2019-03-30
Volume: 54
Issue: 8
Pages: 987-996
ISSN: 0933-7954 (ISSN-L)
1433-9285
DOI: 10.1007/s00127-019-01697-8
PMC: PMC7015269
OpenAlex: W2926589548
Cited by: 465
References: 65
Citations by year: 2026: 39 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 7
FWCI: 52.26
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
Locations: Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01001411)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: depressive symptoms, adolescent mental health, age-period-cohort effects, sex differences, girls, boys, cohort effects, period effects, Latino youth, race and ethnicity, parental education, suicide, environmental risk factors
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Risk Factors, Students, Suicide, United States

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Recent increases in depressive symptoms among US adolescents: trends from 1991 to 2018

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