Training and natural immunity: effects of diets rich in fat or carbohydrate
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate whether a carbohydrate-rich versus fat-rich diet influenced the effect of training on the immune system. Ten untrained young men ingested a carbohydrate-rich diet [65 energy percent (E%) carbohydrate] and ten subjects a fat-rich diet (62E% fat) while endurance training was performed 3-4 times a week for 7 weeks. Maximal oxygen uptake increased by 11% in both groups. Blood samples for immune monitoring were collected before and at the end of the study. Blood samples were also collected, in parallel, from 20 age-matched subjects, and data from these subjects were used to eliminate day-to-day variation in the immunological tests. Independently of diet, training increased the percentage of CD3-CD16+ CD56+ natural killer (NK) cells from [mean (SEM)] 14 (1) % to 20 (3) % (P = 0.05), whereas the NK-cell activity, either unstimulated or stimulated with interleukin (IL)-2 or interferon (IFN)-alpha, did not change. Furthermore, training did not influence the percentages of CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD19+ or CD14+ cells. However, when the two diet groups were compared, it was found that the NK-cell activity had increased in the group on the carbohydrate-rich diet [from 16 (3)% to 27 (2)%] and decreased in the group on the fat-rich diet [from 26 (2)% to 20 (4)%] in response to training. The effect of training on unstimulated NK-cell activity was significantly different between the groups (P = 0.007). These data indicate that diet manipulation during training may influence natural immunity, and suggest that ingestion of a fat-rich diet during training is detrimental to the immune system compared to the effect of a carbohydrate-rich diet.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
NK cell activity was lower in athletes fed with high-fat diets.
“Thus the NK cell activity (the ability of NK cells to lyse a certain number of tumor target cells) was lower in athletes fed with high-fat diets [144].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [144]
Diets rich in fat (62% of dietary energy) could be detrimental to immune function compared to high carbohydrate diets (65% of dietary energy) in humans.
“In humans, Pedersen et col [144] suggested that diets rich in fat (62% of dietary energy) could be detrimental to immune function compared to high carbohydrate diets (65% of dietary energy).”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [144]
Cites
Exercise and the immune system: a model of the stress response?
Hoffman-Goetz, L., & Pedersen, B. K. (1994) · Immunology Today · doi:10.1016/0167-5699(94)90177-5 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Self-citationPhysical activity and immune function in elderly women
NIEMAN, D. C., HENSON, D. A., GUSEWITCH, G., WARREN, B. J., DOTSON, R. C., BUTTERWORTH, D. E., & NEHLSEN-CANNARELLA, S. L. (1993) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/00005768-199307000-00011 · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Influence of Obesity on Immune Function
Nieman, D. C., Henson, D. A., Nehlsen‐Cannarella, S. L., Ekkens, M. J., Utter, A. C., Butterworth, D. E., & Fagoaga, O. R. (1999) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/s0002-8223(99)00077-2 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Carbohydrate and the cytokine response to 2.5 h of running
Nehlsen-Cannarella, S. L., Fagoaga, O. R., Nieman, D. C., Henson, D. A., Butterworth, D. E., Schmitt, R. L., Bailey, E. M., Warren, B. J., Utter, A., & Davis, J. M. (1997) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1997.82.5.1662 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Interaction of training and diet on metabolism and endurance during exercise in man.
Helge, J. W., Richter, E. A., & Kiens, B. (1996) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021309 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citationDefective natural immunity: an early manifestation of human immunodeficiency virus infection.
Ullum, H., Gotzsche, P. C., Victor, J., Dickmeiss, E., Skinhøj, P., & Pedersen, B. K. (1995) · The Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.182.3.789 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Self-citationImmune function in marathon runners versus sedentary controls
Nieman, D. C., Buckley, K. S., Henson, D. A., Warren, B. J., Suttles, J., Ahle, J. C., Simandle, S., Fagoaga, O. R., & Nehlsen‐Cannarella, S. L. (1995) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/00005768-199507000-00006 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Nieman, D. C., Nehlsen‐Cannarella, S. L., Fagoaga, O. R., Henson, D. A., Utter, A. C., Davis, J. M., Williams, F. E., & Butterworth, D. E. (1998) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1998.84.4.1252 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Physical Exercise Increases Natural Cellular-Mediated Tumor Cytotoxicity in Elderly Women
Crist, D. M., MACKINNON, L. T., Thompson, R. F., Atterbom, H. A., & Egan, P. A. (2009) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000213001 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Natural Killer Cell Activity in Peripheral Blood of Highly Trained and Untrained Persons
Pedersen, B. K., Tvede, N., Christensen, L., KLARLUND, K., Kragbak, S., & Halkj�r-Kristensen, J. (1989) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-2007-1024888 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationThe influence of obesity and its treatment on the immune system.
Stallone, D. D. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Chronic exercise enhances in vivo and in vitro cytotoxic mechanisms of natural immunity in mice
Macneil, B. J., & Hoffman‐Goetz, L. (1993) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1993.74.1.388 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Influence of Dietary Fat Concentration and Saturation on Immune Ontogeny in Mice
Erickson, K. L., McNeill, C. J., Gershwin, M. E., & Ossmann, J. B. (1980) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/110.8.1555 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Influence of carbohydrate status on immune responses before and after endurance exercise
Mitchell, J. B., Pizza, F. X., Paquet, A. J., Davis, B. J., Forrest, M., & Braun, W. A. (1998) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1998.84.6.1917 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Carbohydrate Supplementation and the Lymphocyte Proliferative Response to Long Endurance Running
Henson, D. A., Nieman, D. C., Parker, J. C., Rainwater, M. K., Butterworth, D. E., Warren, B. J., Utter, A. C., Davis, J., Fagoaga, O. R., & Nehlsen‐Cannarella, S. L. (1998) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-2007-971962 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
IMMUNOSUPPRESSION WITH POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS IN RENAL TRANSPLANTATION
McHugh, M. I., Wilkinson, R., Elliott, R. W., Field, E. J., Dewar, P. J., Hall, R. R., Taylor, R. M., & Uldall, P. R. (1977) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/00007890-197710000-00005 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Exercise does not modify spatial memory, brain autoimmunity, or antibody response in aged F-344 rats
Barnes, C. A., Forster, M. J., Fleshner, M., Ahanotu, E., Laudenslager, M. L., Mazzeo, R. S., Maier, S. F., & Lal, H. (1991) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/0197-4580(91)90038-l · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Effect of exercise on natural cytotoxicity and pulmonary tumor metastases in mice
Macneil, B. J., & Hoffman‐Goetz, L. (1993) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/00005768-199308000-00007 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Immune Function in Athletes Versus Nonathletes
Nieman, D. C., Brendle, D. C., Henson, D. A., Suttles, J., Cook, V., Warren, B. J., Butterworth, D. E., Fagoaga, O. R., & Nehlsen‐Cannarella, S. L. (1995) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-2007-973014 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Tvede, N., Steensberg, J., Baslund, B., Halkjær-Kristensen, J., & Pedersen, B. K. (1991) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.1991.tb00290.x · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of diet and plasma fatty acid composition on immune status in elderly men
Lb, R., Kiens, B., Pedersen, B. K., & Richter, E. A. (1994) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/59.3.572 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationNutritional modulation of human immune status
Kelley, D. S., Branch, L. B., & Iacono, J. M. (1989) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/s0271-5317(89)80057-0 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Lymphokine activated killer cell activity following voluntary physical activity in mice.
Hoffman‐Goetz, L., Arumugam, Y., & Sweeny, L. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Clark, A., & Mach, N. (2016) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1186/s12970-016-0155-6 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
“Thus the NK cell activity (the ability of NK cells to lyse a certain number of tumor target cells) was lower in athletes fed with high-fat diets [144].”
BackgroundInfluentialExercise, nutrition and immune function
Gleeson, M., Nieman, D. C., & Pedersen, B. K. (2004) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/0264041031000140590 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Self-citationAdiponectin Is a Negative Regulator of NK Cell Cytotoxicity
Kim, K.-Y., Kim, J. K., Han, S. H., Lim, J., Kim, K. I., Cho, D. H., Lee, M.-S., Lee, J.-H., Yoon, D., Yoon, S. R., et al. (2006) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.176.10.5958 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Modification of immune responses to exercise by carbohydrate, glutamine and anti‐oxidant supplements
Gleeson, M., & Bishop, N. C. (2000) · Immunology & Cell Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1711.2000.t01-6-.x · Cited by 119 · see citing works
The athlete’s diet: nutritional goals and dietary strategies
Maughan, R. (2002) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns2001132 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Moreira, A. M., Kekkonen, R. A., Delgado, L., Fonseca, J., Korpela, R., & Haahtela, T. (2006) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602549 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Gunzer, W., Konrad, M., & Pail, E. (2012) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu4091187 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Hong, S., Johnson, T. A., Farag, N. H., Guy, H. J. B., Matthews, S. C., Ziegler, M. G., & Mills, P. J. (2004) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00233.2004 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Nutritional Strategies to Minimise Exercise-Induced Immunosuppression in Athletes
Gleeson, M., Lancaster, G. I., & Bishop, N. C. (2001) · Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1139/h2001-039 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Carbohydrate intake during endurance exercise increases natural killer cell responsiveness to IL-2
McFarlin, B. K., Flynn, M. G., Stewart, L. K., & Timmerman, K. L. (2004) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00585.2003 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Effects of regular exercise on lymphocyte subsets and CD62L after psychological vs. physical stress
Hong, S., Farag, N. H., Nelesen, R. A., Ziegler, M. G., & Mills, P. J. (2004) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(03)00134-x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Repeated Endurance Exercise Affects Leukocyte Number but Not NK Cell Activity
McFarlin, B. K., Mitchell, J. B., McFarlin, M. A., & STEINHOFF, G. M. (2003) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000074463.36752.87 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Dovio, A., Caramello, V., Masera, R. G., Sartori, M. L., Saba, L., Tinivella, M., Prolo, P., Termine, A., Avagnina, P., & Angeli, A. (2004) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802639 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Han, S. N., Leka, L. S., Lichtenstein, A. H., Ausman, L. M., & Meydani, S. N. (2003) · Journal of Lipid Research · doi:10.1194/jlr.m300181-jlr200 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Carbohydrate consumption during cycling increases in vitro NK cell responses to IL-2 and IFN-γ
McFarlin, B. K., Flynn, M. G., & Hampton, T. (2006) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2006.06.006 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Park, H. G., Lee, Y. R., Jun, J. K., & Lee, W. L. (2014) · Physical Activity and Nutrition · doi:10.5717/jenb.2014.18.1.79 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Effect of Diet and Exercise on the Peripheral Immune System in Young Balb/c Mice
Martínez-Carrillo, B. E., Luna, R. A. J., Campos‐Rodríguez, R., Valdés‐Ramos, R., & Rivera‐Aguilar, V. (2015) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2015/458470 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zhou, X., Luo, J., Lin, S., Wang, Y., Yan, Z., Ren, Q., Liu, X., & Li, X. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43954-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Allsopp, G. L., Addinsall, A. B., Stephenson, G. L., Basheer, F., Gatta, P. A. D., Hoffmann, S. M., Russell, A. P., & Wright, C. R. (2024) · BMC Sports Science Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s13102-024-00890-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Borges, G. F., Teixeira, A. M., & Ferreira, J. P. (2012) · Motricidade · doi:10.6063/motricidade.8(2).717 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
RENDIMIENTO DEPORTIVO: COMPOSICIÓN CORPORAL, PESO, ENERGÍA-MACRONUTRIENTES Y DIGESTIÓN (II)
Guisado, J. P. (2009) · Archivos de medicina del deporte: revista de la Federación Española de Medicina del Deporte y de la Confederación Iberoamericana de Medicina del Deporte · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Chang, H., Park, H., Jeong, J., & Lee, W.-L. (2011) · Journal of Life Science · doi:10.5352/jls.2011.21.8.1176 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Factors influencing infection risk in endurance athletes
Svendsen, I. S. (2016) · Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Exercise and Immunodeficiency Affect Immunoglobulins in Endurance Horses
Krick, K. E. (2002) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Physical stress/exercise and the immune response
Hong, S., & Mills, P. J. (2003) · Birkhäuser Basel eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8039-8_3
Ziegler, M. G., Mills, P. J., Hong, S., Johnson, T. A., Farag, N. H., Guy, H. J. B., Matthews, S. C., Dimsdale, J. E., Maisel, A. S., Redwine, L. S., et al. (2015)
jang, H., Lee, W.-L., & Park, H. (2014) · Exercise Science · doi:10.15857/ksep.2014.23.2.79
Nijs, J. (2006) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-313-8645-1_185
Алексеевич, М. В., Андреевич, Г. М., Владимирович, К. А., & Kostrov, S. А. (2024) · Patient-Oriented Medicine and Pharmacy · doi:10.37489/2949-1924-0040
Allsopp, G. L., Addinsall, A. B., Stephenson, G. L., Basheer, F., Gatta, P. A. D., Hoffmann, S. M., Russell, A. P., & Wright, C. R. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.25744288
Aptidao cardiorrespiratória : relaçao com o sistema imunológico de adolescentes
Ulbrich, A. Z. (2008) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
- Authors
- Pedersen, B. K., Helge, J. W., Richter, E. A., Rohde, T., & Kiens, B.
- Affiliations
- Rigshospitalet (DK)
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Venue
- European Journal of Applied Physiology
- Published
- 2000-05-15
- Volume
- 82
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 98-102
- ISSN
- 0020-9376 (ISSN-L)
- 1439-6319
- 1439-6327
- OpenAlex
- W1992309259
- Cited by
- 32
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2024: 3 · 2022: 1 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 2 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 3.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- European Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Danmarks Grundforskningsfond
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- endurance training, natural immunity, natural killer cells, NK cell cytotoxicity, dietary fat, high-carbohydrate diet, high-fat diet, immune system, interleukin-2, interferon-alpha
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Fats, Humans, Immunity, Interleukin-2, Killer Cells, Natural, Male, Oxygen Consumption, Physical Endurance, Exercise, Lymphocyte Subsets, Interferon-alpha, CD3 Complex, Receptors, IgG, CD56 Antigen
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
