Modification of immune responses to exercise by carbohydrate, glutamine and anti‐oxidant supplements
Abstract
Immunosuppression in athletes involved in heavy training is undoubtedly multifactorial in origin. Training and competitive surroundings may increase the athlete's exposure to pathogens and provide optimal conditions for pathogen transmission. Heavy prolonged exertion is associated with numerous hormonal and biochemical changes, many of which potentially have detrimental effects on immune function. Furthermore, improper nutrition can compound the negative influence of heavy exertion on immunocompetence. An athlete exercising in a carbohydrate‐depleted state experiences larger increases in circulating stress hormones and a greater perturbation of several immune function indices. The poor nutritional status of some athletes may predispose them to immunosuppression. For example, dietary deficiencies of protein and specific micronutrients have long been associated with immune dysfunction. Although it is impossible to counter the effects of all of the factors that contribute to exercise‐induced immunosuppression, it has been shown to be possible to minimize the effects of many factors. Athletes can help themselves by eating a well‐balanced diet that includes adequate protein and carbohydrate, sufficient to meet their energy requirements. This will ensure a more than adequate intake of trace elements without the need for special supplements. Consuming carbohydrate (but not glutamine or other amino acids) during exercise attenuates rises in stress hormones, such as cortisol, and appears to limit the degree of exercise‐induced immunosuppression, at least for non‐fatiguing bouts of exercise. Evidence that high doses of anti‐oxidant vitamins can prevent exercise‐induced immunosuppression is also lacking.
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Lipids attenuate intestinal inflammation, bacterial translocation and intestinal injury following intestinal hypoperfusion in athletes with digestive disturbances.
“Lipids attenuate intestinal inflammation, bacterial translocation and intestinal injury following intestinal hypoperfusion in athletes with digestive disturbances [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
Carbohydrates restore muscle and liver glycogen stores during prolonged periods of intense exercise.
“Carbohydrates restore muscle and liver glycogen stores during prolonged periods of intense exercise [113], attenuate increased stress hormone levels, such as cortisol, and can limit the immunosuppression associated with high intensity exercise [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
Adequate carbohydrate consumption is essential for heavy training schedules and successful athletic performance.
“There is no doubt that adequate carbohydrate consumption is essential for heavy training schedules and successful athletic performance [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
Carbohydrates can limit the immunosuppression associated with high intensity exercise.
“Carbohydrates restore muscle and liver glycogen stores during prolonged periods of intense exercise [113], attenuate increased stress hormone levels, such as cortisol, and can limit the immunosuppression associated with high intensity exercise [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
Carbohydrates attenuate increased stress hormone levels, such as cortisol.
“Carbohydrates restore muscle and liver glycogen stores during prolonged periods of intense exercise [113], attenuate increased stress hormone levels, such as cortisol, and can limit the immunosuppression associated with high intensity exercise [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
The daily protein requirement is approximately doubled in athletes compared to the sedentary population.
“The daily protein requirement is approximately doubled in athletes compared to the sedentary population [113].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [113]
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- Authors
- Gleeson, M., & Bishop, N. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Birmingham (GB)
- Venue
- Immunology & Cell Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2000-10
- Volume
- 78
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 554-561
- ISSN
- 0004-945X (ISSN-L)
- 0818-9641
- 1440-1711
- OpenAlex
- W2092498283
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 5.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Immunology and Cell Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- exercise-induced immunosuppression, athletes, carbohydrate supplementation, glutamine, antioxidant supplements, stress hormones, cortisol, carbohydrate depletion, immune function, nutritional status, protein intake, micronutrient deficiency
- MeSH terms
- Antioxidants, Dietary Carbohydrates, Dietary Proteins, Glutamine, Humans, Immune System, Immune Tolerance, Lymphocytes, Neutrophils, Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Physical Education and Training, Physical Fitness, Sports, Stress, Physiological, Exercise, Micronutrients, Dietary Supplements
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