Plant ecdysteroids: plant sterols with intriguing distributions, biological effects and relations to plant hormones

Phytoecdysteroids have hepatoprotective, hypoglycaemic, and anabolic effects on skeletal muscle.

“The major properties of PEs include hepatoprotective, hypoglycaemic, and anabolic effects on skeletal muscle21.”

More than 500 different PEs are found in over 100 terrestrial plants.

“More than 500 different PEs are found in over 100 terrestrial plants.”

PEs are found in algae, fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.

“Additionally, PEs are found in algae, fungi, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.”

In plants, PEs provide defense against insects, nematodes, and several environmental stresses.

“In plants, PEs effectively induce biological activities and provide defense against insects, nematodes, and several environmental stresses.”

Allelochemicals can alter gene expression profiles in plants via DNA binding.

“Furthermore, these allelochemicals can alter gene expression profiles in plants via DNA binding [18,19].”

PEs possess allelochemical activity that provides tolerance against insect attacks, facilitating hormonal disruptions and toxicity in insects and nematodes.

“They also possess allelochemical activity that provides tolerance against several insect attacks, such as taste receptors, which facilitate hormonal disruptions and toxicity in insects and nematodes.”

During spring, the highest concentration of PEs is present in newly developing parts such as shoots.

“In particular, during the spring season, the highest concentration of PEs is present in newly developing parts such as shoots.”

In autumn, PEs are mobilized from the shoot to underground parts, increasing PE levels in the roots.

“In autumn, PEs are mobilized from the shoot to underground parts, increasing PE levels in the roots [18].”

In several perennial plants, PEs undergo seasonal cycling between underground and aerial parts.

“In several perennial plants, PEs seasonal cycling takes place between underground and aerial parts.”

In annual plants, PEs are translocated from seeds to developing organs such as shoots and other growing regions.

“In annual plants, PEs are translocated from seeds to developing organs such as the shoots and other growing regions.”

PEs are found in more than 100 terrestrial fern, gymnosperm, and angiosperm plant families.

“PEs are found in more than 100 terrestrial fern, gymnosperm, and angiosperm plant families [4,7,18,23,24].”

In spinach, lathosterol (C27-sterol) is the precursor of PEs, whereas in Drosophila melanogaster, cholesterol synthesizes ECs.

“In spinach, lathosterol (C27-sterol) is the precursor of PEs, whereas in Drosophila melanogaster, C27-sterol, i.e., cholesterol, synthesizes ECs [4,18,19,23,24,142].”

In corn, MVA is not the pathway for synthesizing phytosterols; other pathways participate in synthesizing IPP.

“In corn, MVA is not the pathway for synthesizing phytosterols; other pathways participate in synthesizing IPP [18,116,143,144].”

The precursor of PE biosynthesis is a reduced sidechain at C-24 of Δ7 sterol.

“However, the precursor of PE biosynthesis is a reduced sidechain at C-24 of Δ7 sterol [18].”

JA signaling induces PE and EC biosynthesis during a pathogenic attack.

“Meanwhile, it has been demonstrated that JA signaling induces PE and EC biosynthesis during a pathogenic attack [18].”

PEs modulate plant physiological processes and protect against insects and soil nematodes.

“PEs modulate plant physiological processes and protect against insects and soil nematodes [18].”

The level of PEs was increased after JA treatment, and the infestation of nematodes (cyst nematodes and root-knot nematodes) was reduced.

“The level of PEs was increased after JA treatment, and the infestation of nematodes (cyst nematodes and root-knot nematodes) was reduced [18].”

PE application induces RuBP production.

“Additionally, PE application induces RuBP production [18].”

iPR conjugated with ECs is found in insects; this compound has been identified as 22-N6-(isopentenyl) adenosine monophosphoric ester of ecdysone using NMR and mass spectroscopy.

“Furthermore, iPR conjugated with ECs is found in insects; this compound has been identified as 22-N6-(isopentenyl) adenosine monophosphoric ester of ecdysone using NMR and mass spectroscopy [18].”

Isopentenyladenosine (iPR) is present in animals and has anti-cancer properties in mammals, while it enhances plant cellular and metabolic processes in plants.

“Isopentenyladenosine (iPR) is also present in animals and has anti-cancer properties in mammals, while it enhances plant cellular and metabolic processes in plants [18].”

After ET production and its effect disappear, ecdysone has a tiny effect on ET biosynthesis and bioactivity.

“Additionally, after ET production and its effect disappear, ecdysone has a tiny effect on ET biosynthesis and bioactivity [18].”

In Chenopodium rubrum and dwarf Zea mays, ecdysone application results in slight ET production.

“In Chenopodium rubrum and dwarf Zea mays, ecdysone application results in slight ET production.”