Plumbing the Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Inland Waters into the Terrestrial Carbon Budget
Abstract
Because freshwater covers such a small fraction of the Earth's surface area, inland freshwater ecosystems (particularly lakes, rivers, and reservoirs) have rarely been considered as potentially important quantitative components of the carbon cycle at either global or regional scales. By taking published estimates of gas exchange, sediment accumulation, and carbon transport for a variety of aquatic systems, we have constructed a budget for the role of inland water ecosystems in the global carbon cycle. Our analysis conservatively estimates that inland waters annually receive, from a combination of background and anthropogenically altered sources, on the order of 1.9 Pg C y-¹ from the terrestrial landscape, of which about 0.2 is buried in aquatic sediments, at least 0.8 (possibly much more) is returned to the atmosphere as gas exchange while the remaining 0.9 Pg y-¹ is delivered to the oceans, roughly equally as inorganic and organic carbon. Thus, roughly twice as much C enters inland aquatic systems from land as is exported from land to the sea. Over prolonged time net carbon fluxes in aquatic systems tend to be greater per unit area than in much of the surrounding land. Although their area is small, these freshwater aquatic systems can affect regional C balances. Further, the inclusion of inland, freshwater ecosystems provides useful insight about the storage, oxidation and transport of terrestrial C, and may warrant a revision of how the modern net C sink on land is described.
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Ditches, like other aquatic systems, are not passive pipes but active components of global biogeochemical cycles, and the biogeochemical fingerprint of water leaving a ditch system can be substantially altered relative to incoming flow.
“Ditches, like other aquatic systems, are not passive pipes but active components of global biogeochemical cycles 125 , and the biogeochemical fingerprint of water leaving a ditch system can be substantially altered relative to incoming flow.”
From Lines in the landscape (2025) · cites this paper as [125]
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Self-citationPaterson, M. J., Muir, D., Rosenberg, B., et al. (1998) · Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences · doi:10.1139/f97-276 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Hewitt, P. L. (2007) · The Physics Teacher · doi:10.1119/1.2823991 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pulliam, W. M., Ojima, D. S., & Parton, W. J. (1994) · OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Paterson, M. J., Muir, D. C. G., Rosenberg, B., et al. (1998) · Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences · doi:10.1139/cjfas-55-3-544 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Global carbon dioxide emissions from inland waters
Raymond, P. A., Hartmann, J., Lauerwald, R., Sobek, S., McDonald, C., Hoover, M., Butman, D., Striegl, R., Mayorga, E., Humborg, C., et al. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12760 · Cited by 2,553 · see citing works
Self-citationA global inventory of lakes based on high-resolution satellite imagery
Verpoorter, C., Kutser, T., Seekell, D. A., & Tranvik, L. J. (2014) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1002/2014gl060641 · Cited by 1,504 · see citing works
Self-citationLarge contribution to inland water CO2 and CH4 emissions from very small ponds
Holgerson, M. A., & Raymond, P. A. (2016) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo2654 · Cited by 995 · see citing works
The Fate of Terrestrial Organic Carbon in the Marine Environment
Blair, N. E., & Aller, R. C. (2012) · Annual Review of Marine Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142717 · Cited by 751 · see citing works
Terrestrial carbon inputs to inland waters: A current synthesis of estimates and uncertainty
Drake, T. W., Raymond, P. A., & Spencer, R. G. M. (2018) · Limnology and Oceanography Letters · doi:10.1002/lol2.10055 · Cited by 707 · see citing works
Emerging global role of small lakes and ponds: little things mean a lot
Downing, J. A. (2010) · Limnetica · doi:10.23818/limn.29.02 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Self-citationLe Quéré, C., Peters, G. P., Andres, R. J., Andrew, R. M., Boden, T. A., Ciais, P., Friedlingstein, P., Houghton, R. A., Marland, G., Moriarty, R., et al. (2014) · Earth System Science Data · doi:10.5194/essd-6-235-2014 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Aerosol Deposition Impacts on Land and Ocean Carbon Cycles
Mahowald, N. M., Scanza, R., Brahney, J., Goodale, C. L., Hess, P. G., Moore, J. K., & Neff, J. (2017) · Current Climate Change Reports · doi:10.1007/s40641-017-0056-z · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Variability in organic carbon reactivity across lake residence time and trophic gradients
Evans, C. D., Futter, M. N., Moldan, F., Valinia, S., Frogbrook, Z., & Kothawala, D. N. (2017) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/ngeo3051 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Diel Surface Temperature Range Scales with Lake Size
Woolway, R. I., Jones, I. D., Maberly, S. C., French, J. R., Livingstone, D. M., Monteith, D. T., Simpson, G. L., Thackeray, S. J., Andersen, M. R., Battarbee, R. W., et al. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152466 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Marescaux, A., Thieu, V., & Garnier, J. (2018) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.151 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Global importance of methane emissions from drainage ditches and canals
Peacock, M., Audet, J., Bastviken, D., Futter, M. N., Gauci, V, Grinham, A., Harrison, J. A., Kent, M. S., Kosten, S., Lovelock, C. E., et al. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abeb36 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Megathrust earthquake drives drastic organic carbon supply to the hadal trench.
Kioka, A., Schwestermann, T., Moernaut, J., Ikehara, K., Kanamatsu, T., McHugh, C. M., dos Santos Ferreira, C., Wiemer, G., Haghipour, N., Kopf, A. J., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-38834-x · Cited by 84 · see citing works
St. Pierre, K. A., St. Louis, V. L., Schiff, S. L., Lehnherr, I., Dainard, P. G., Gardner, A. S., Aukes, P. J. K., & Sharp, M. J. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1904241116 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Sulzberger, B., Austin, A. T., Cory, R. M., Zepp, R. G., & Paul, N. D. (2019) · Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences · doi:10.1039/c8pp90063a · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Aquatic metabolism in the Everglades: Dominance of water column heterotrophy
Hagerthey, S. E., Cole, J. J., & Kilbane, D. (2010) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.4319/lo.2010.55.2.0653 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationDoyle, M. W., & Bernhardt, E. S. (2011) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es101273f · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Clifford, C., Bieroza, M., Clarke, S. J., Pickard, A., Stratigos, M. J., Hill, M. J., Raheem, N., Tatariw, C., Wood, P. J., Arismendi, I., et al. (2025) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02699-y · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Reservoir ecosystems support large pools of fish biomass
Parisek, C. A., De Castro, F. A., Colby, J. D., Leidy, G. R., Sadro, S., & Rypel, A. L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-59730-z · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cogo, G. B., Biasi, C., Severo, E. S., Loro, V., & Santos, S. (2018) · Annales de Limnologie - International Journal of Limnology · doi:10.1051/limn/2017032 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cole, J. J., Prairie, Y. T., Caraco, N. F., McDowell, W. H., Tranvik, L. J., Striegl, R. G., Duarte, C. M., Kortelainen, P., Downing, J. A., Middelburg, J. J., & Melack, J.
- Affiliations
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies (US)
- Université du Québec à Montréal (CA)
- University of New Hampshire (US)
- Uppsala University (SE)
- United States Geological Survey (US)
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (ES)
- Finnish Environment Institute (FI)
- Iowa State University (US)
- Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NL)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cole, J. J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Ecosystems
- Published
- 2007-02
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 172-185
- ISSN
- 1432-9840 (ISSN-L)
- 1435-0629
- OpenAlex
- W2100468073
- Cited by
- 3,941
- References
- 108
- Citations by year
- 2026: 198 · 2025: 202 · 2024: 253 · 2023: 237 · 2022: 294 · 2021: 354 · 2020: 243 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 279 · 2017: 243 · 2016: 225 · 2015: 246 · 2014: 190 · 2013: 192 · 2012: 157
- FWCI
- 63.85
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Ecosystems (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- DIGITAL.CSIC (Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)) (submittedVersion)
- KNAW research portal (Royal Academy of Art and Sciences (KNAW)) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric and Environmental Gas Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine and coastal ecosystems
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Peatlands and Wetlands Ecology
- Keywords
- carbon cycle, inland waters, freshwater ecosystems, carbon balance, carbon flux, gas exchange, terrestrial carbon sink, lakes, rivers, reservoirs
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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