The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly: Domestic Violence Survivors' Experiences with Their Informal Social Networks
Abstract
Informal social networks play a critical role in buffering the negative effects of stressful life events. For women experiencing the stress of a violent relationship, family and friends are among the first sources of support sought; however, reactions to the abuse by family and friends are not uniformly perceived as helpful by survivors. The current study takes a qualitative approach to examining the range of possible reactions survivors may encounter from their social networks regarding the abuse. Special attention is given to negative and mixed reactions, as they have previously been under-examined in the literature. Findings suggest that survivors (N = 45) regularly experience negative and mixed reactions. Emergent themes suggest that both positive and negative reactions to abuse could be understood in four broad arenas: safety, emotional availability, input, and aid. However, positive and negative reactions emerged as distinct constructs within each arena; mixed reactions took multiple forms including being within person and within network.
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Further understanding of the process of disclosure and help-seeking comes from a few qualitative studies which highlight the complexity of the notion of support and the mistrust on the part of survivors that leads to 'cautious relating'.
“Further under-standing of the process of disclosure and helpseeking comes from a few qualitative studies which highlight the complexity of the notion of support and the mistrust on the part of survivors that leads to 'cautious relating'.1,24”
From Help‐seeking amongst women survivors of domestic violence: a qualitative study of pathways towards formal and informal support (2016) · cites this paper as [24]
Our study confirms previous findings that disclosure of abuse does not always have a positive outcome for women.
“Our study confirms previous findings that disclosure of abuse does not always have a positive outcome for women.”
From Help‐seeking amongst women survivors of domestic violence: a qualitative study of pathways towards formal and informal support (2016) · cites this paper as [24]
The study provides corroboration and further understanding of barriers to disclosure and help-seeking previously identified.
“The study provides corroboration and further understanding of barriers to disclosure and help-seeking previously identified.”
From Help‐seeking amongst women survivors of domestic violence: a qualitative study of pathways towards formal and informal support (2016) · cites this paper as [24]
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“…describe mixed responses, both from different individuals and from the same individual; however, despite negative and mixed responses, the majority of survivors are able to identify at least one person in their network who “provided them with some type of support” (Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialViolence against women—social services support during legal proceedings
Ekström, V. (2014) · European Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/13691457.2014.951600 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“The responses that women receive may be perceived either as positive or negative (Moe, 2007; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundCivil Protection Orders and their Courtroom Context: the Impact of Gatekeepers on Legal Decisions
Bejinariu, A., Troshynski, E. I., & Miethe, T. D. (2018) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-018-9999-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“^ These informal interpreters include other family members or friends of the victim and/or offender who provide language assistance and support to victims while they navigate an Englishspeaking courtroom (Lemon 2006; Sylaska and Edwards 2014; Trotter and Allen 2009; Weisz et al. 2007).”
Violência contra a Mulher, Casas-Abrigo e Redes Sociais: Revisão Sistemática da Literatura
Krenkel, S., & Moré, C. L. O. O. (2017) · Psicologia Ciência e Profissão · doi:10.1590/1982-3703000192016 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“…ajuda médica e religiosa, a polícia, curandeiras, benzedeiras, serviços de saúde e judiciais (Bruschi, Paula, & Bordin, 2006; Hadeed & El-Bassel, 2006; Lettiere & Nakano, 2011; Postmus, Severson, Berry, & Yoo, 2009; Sabina & Tindale, 2008; Sayem, Begum, & Moneesha, 2015; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
Tracy, M., Chong, L. S., Strully, K. W., Gordis, E. B., Cerdá, M., & Marshall, B. D. L. (2023) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-023-00578-8 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…domestic and gender-based violence may spread through households and high schools (Banyard et al., 2022; Sandberg et al., 2021), while the reactions of members of one’s social network to domestic violence disclosures may influence survivors’ ability to access support (Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundMazur, J., Tabak, I., & Zawadzka, D. (2017) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-017-9206-7 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
‘She Knew What was Coming’: Knowledge and Domestic Violence in Social Work Education
Robbins, R. (2014) · Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/02615479.2014.898748 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Resources for domestic violence in the Canadian workplace: Results of a pan-Canadian survey
MacGregor, J. C. D., Wathen, C. N., & MacQuarrie, B. J. (2017) · Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/15555240.2017.1349612 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Many negative experiences, however, are also reported (MacGregor et al., 2016b; McFerran, 2011; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundAre Effects of Violence on Life Satisfaction Gendered? A Case Study of Indigenous Australians
Jayasinghe, M. S., Selvanathan, E. A., & Selvanathan, S. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00219-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Female Intimate Partner Violence Survivors’ Experiences With Disclosure to Informal Network Members
Johnson, I. D., & Belenko, S. R. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519843282 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The two most commonly experienced reactions (INMs listening to their feelings and urging them to talk about how they felt) were also identified as being among the most commonly experienced by both Mahlstedt and Keeny (1993) and Trotter and Allen (2009).”
BackgroundResultFlynn, C., Couturier, P., Turcotte, S., Dubé, K., Lévesque, C., Côté, P.-B., & Lapierre, S. (2022) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012221083329 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“This is a troubling finding, because family and friends are the primary sources of support for women who experience abuse (Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundBasilio, D. D., Guglielmucci, F., & Livanou, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.919943 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“However, DA literature indicated that victims who make multiple attempts to leave might experience a gradual decrease in the support received from their loved ones, and friends and family members might also withdraw from the victim if they fear the perpetrator’s retaliation (Goodkind et al., 2003; Trotter and Allen, 2…”
BackgroundGoodman‐Williams, R., Simmons, C., Chiaramonte, D. M., Ayeni, O. O., Guerrero, M., Sprecher, M., & Sullivan, C. M. (2023) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/ort0000686 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Ahrens, C. E., Dworkin, E. R., & Hart, A. C. (2020) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684320975663 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…consistent with previous research conducted with survivors of IPV which have found emotional support and tangible aid to be common social reactions from support providers (BonnanWhite et al., 2015; DePrince et al., 2014; Edwards & Dardis, 2020; Edwards, Dardis, et al., 2015; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialUm, M. Y., Lee, J. O., Kim, H. J., Rice, E. R. W., & Palinkas, L. A. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01977-8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kern, S. M., Stacy, S. E., Kozina, R. M., Ripley, A. J., & Clapp, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22693 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Yndo, M. C., Weston, R., & Marshall, L. L. (2018) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801218805579 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Our findings are consistent with research that indicates the majority of women do perceive a mix of both positive and negative social reactions (Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
BackgroundResultDet besvärliga våldet : Socialtjänstens stöd till kvinnor som utsatts för våld i nära relationer
Ekström, V. (2016) · Linköping studies in arts and science · doi:10.3384/diss.diva-130941 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Communicating a History of Sexual Trauma: Partner Responses to Women's Disclosure
Lukacena, K. M., & Mark, K. P. (2021) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012211034217 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Sandberg, L. J. (2016) · Feminism & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959353516652917 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Patriarchal and matriarchal network responses Similar to other studies (e.g. Trotter & Allen, 2009), narratives on responses to IPV were indeed multidimensional; voices within the same network but also within the same person were often complex and contradictory.”
BackgroundHernández, R. R., & Aguilar, L. O. (2018) · Trabajo Social Hoy · doi:10.12960/tsh.2018.0001 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Cuzzocrea, A., Akter, M. S., Shahriar, H., & Bringas, P. G. (2025) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi17020084 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Amar-Amar, J. J., Abello-Llanos, R., Orozco, C. M., & Ávila-Toscano, J. H. (2013) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2155 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
L’évolution du réseau social des femmes victimes de violence conjugale
Nolet, A.-M., Morselli, C., & Cousineau, M. (2019) · Criminologie · doi:10.7202/1065865ar · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Interpreting Community Accountability: Citizen Views of Responding to Domestic Violence (or Not)
Hess, J. Z., Allen, N. E., & Todd, N. R. (2014) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2011.1123 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationIntimate partner violence among LGBTQ+ college students
Edwards, K. M., & Sylaska, K. M. (2014) · doi:10.34051/p/2020.210 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kuskoff, E., & Parsell, C. (2024) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-024-00759-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Taket et al. (2014) and Trotter and Allen (2009) found that many domestic violence victims do not appreciate direct advice from bystanders, as it can make them feel pressured to follow the advice against their own instincts.”
Anitha, S. (2022) · Families Relationships and Societies · doi:10.1332/204674321x16503896240061 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Goodman, L. A., Chronister, K. M., Gutowski, E. R., Mendoza, M., & Kumar, N. (2023) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-023-00553-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…including abusers’ isolation tactics; survivors’ sense of shame or desire not to burden others; or network members’ exhaustion, minimization or misunderstanding of abuse, or entanglement in their own hardships and stressors (Chronister et al., 2021; Goodman et al, 2022b; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
Miller‐Graff, L. E., Howell, K. H., Paulson, J. L., & Jamison, L. E. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.023 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Mishra, A., Miller, J. G., & Wood, C. (2024) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-024-03502-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Horst, K. (2013) · K-State Research Exchange (Kansas State University) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Perceived Parental Support in Teen Dating Violence
Fitzpatrick, J. M. (2022) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swac008 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Development and validation of the Informal Supporter Readiness Inventory (ISRI)
Davies, R. L., Rice, K., & Rock, A. J. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296770 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Coping Resources of Women Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence: An Ecological Perspective
Slabbert, I. (2017) · Die maatskaplikewerk-navorser-praktisyn/The social work practitioner-researcher · doi:10.25159/2415-5829/2197 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Dimbuene, Z. T., Ahinkorah, B. O., & Amugsi, D. A. (2025) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-025-02037-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dynamics of intimate partner violence - cycle of abuse
Provic, I. (2024) · Temida · doi:10.2298/tem2403401p
The Social Response to Survivors of Attempted Intimate Partner Homicide
Avieli, H. (2025) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012251319318 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…the police or intervening during an assault, receiving advice from support providers, telling survivors to break up with their partner, providing a neutral perspective, and explaining the partner ’ s behavior and indifference (Ahrens et al., 2021; Edwards et al., 2012; Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
Understanding Intimate Partner Violence Through Its Dynamics
Katerndahl, D. A. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4998-0_22 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Del laberinto hasta el camino hacia la recuperación de la violencia
de Alencar-Rodrigues, R., & Espinosa, L. M. C. (2013) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.30849/rip/ijp.v47i1.202 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…social ha sido objeto de muchos estudios sobre variables asociadas al cese de la violencia de género en la pareja, pues actúa como amortiguador del estrés y favorece el desarrollo de estrategias de afrontamiento (Barnett, 2001; Kocot & Goodman, 2003; Trotter & Allen, 2009; Waldrop & Resick, 2004).”
BackgroundPrivate crises/public reponses: A nascent model
Model, L. W. P. C. P. R. A. N. (2012) · Proceedings of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/meet.14504901125 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Women aged 45-64 and IPV in Cyprus
Parlalis, S. K. (2016) · The Journal of Adult Protection · doi:10.1108/jap-11-2015-0033 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nolet, A.-M., Cousineau, M., & Morselli, C. (2021) · Canadian social work review · doi:10.7202/1075109ar · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Online support and domestic violence : negotiating discourses, emotions, and actions
Berg, K. (2015) · London Met Repository (London Metropolitan University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Simorangkir, D. N. (2025) · Feminist Encounters A Journal of Critical Studies in Culture and Politics · doi:10.20897/femenc/16791 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“On the other hand, barriers include fear of victim-blaming, avoidance by the disclosure recipient and minimisation of the abuse (Goodkind et al., 2003; Trotter and Allen, 2009).”
Examining Risk and Victim Agency in Bystander Interventions in Intimate Partner Violence
Kuskoff, E., Mols, H., & Parsell, C. (2026) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251408135 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intimate Partner Violence and Homelessness among Women: The Role of the YWCA to Rebuild Their Lives
Tabassum, F., Ahmed, R., Jahan, F., & Zawad, M. R. A. (2023) · Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Studies · doi:10.32996/jhsss.2023.5.10.6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Goodman, L. A., Epstein, D., Zhang, E., Xie, C., Mueller-Hsia, J. K., & Slocum, A. (2024) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-024-00780-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“But often, the responses of an IPV survivor’s informal network are detrimental instead; in one sample, 78% of survivors reported receiving negative or mixed responses (Trotter & Allen, 2009).”
Elder, E. (2016) · Cardinal Scholar (Ball State University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Incarcerated Men and the Etiology of Intimate Partner Violence
Swogger, R. M. (2016) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Trotter, J. L., & Allen, N. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Corresponding author
- Allen, Nicole E.
- ORCID
- Allen, Nicole E.
- Venue
- American Journal of Community Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-03-31
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 221-231
- ISSN
- 0091-0562 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2770
- OpenAlex
- W2077953501
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 3.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Community Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Demography › Elder Abuse and Neglect
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Keywords
- domestic violence, intimate partner violence, victims of domestic violence, informal social networks, social support, family and friends, emotional availability, safety, survivor experiences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Attitude, Female, Humans, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Social Behavior, Social Support, Domestic Violence, Survivors, Battered Women, Young Adult
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