The Second to Fourth Digit Ratio (2D:4D) in a Japanese Twin Sample: Heritability, Prenatal Hormone Transfer, and Association with Sexual Orientation
Abstract
The second to fourth digit ratio has been argued to reflect prenatal hormonal influences and is reportedly associated with various psychological and behavioral traits, such as sexual orientation, cognitive abilities, and personality. We examined genetic and environmental influences on the second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) using a Japanese twin sample (N=300). The genetic analysis showed substantial additive genetic influences for both right and left hand 2D:4D. The rest of the variance was explained mainly by environmental influences not shared within twin pairs. These findings were, in general, in accordance with preceding studies with primarily Caucasian twin samples. The bivariate genetic analysis revealed that the additive genetic influences were largely shared between the right and left hand, while the non-shared environmental influences were largely unique to each hand. Results from a comparison of opposite-sex and same-sex twins were not significant, although they were in the predicted direction according to the prenatal hormone transfer hypothesis. Female monozygotic twin pairs discordant in sexual orientation showed significant within-pair differences in left hand 2D:4D, where non-heterosexual twins had lower (more masculinized) 2D:4D. In addition, we found that non-heterosexual male MZ twins had larger (more feminized) 2D:4D than their heterosexual co-twins. These results suggest the existence of non-shared environmental influences that affect both 2D:4D and sexual orientation.
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Evidence from twin studies demonstrates that adult testosterone as well as its bioavailability demonstrate significant additive genetic effects.
“Further, evidence from twin studies of serum testosterone or hormonally mediated digit ratio measurements demonstrates that adult testosterone as well as its bioavailability demonstrate significant additive genetic effects, indicating that women who produce more testosterone will have offspring who also produce higher testosterone (Coviello et al., 2011; Hiraishi et al., 2012; Paul et al., 2006;”
From Endometriosis and polycystic ovary syndrome are diametric disorders (2021) · cites this paper as Hiraishi et al., 2012
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- Authors
- Hiraishi, K., Sasaki, S., Shikishima, C., & Ando, J.
- Affiliations
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CA)
- Keio University (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Hiraishi, Kai
- Venue
- Archives of Sexual Behavior
- Published
- 2012-01-20
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 711-724
- ISSN
- 0004-0002 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2800
- OpenAlex
- W2021556515
- Cited by
- 51
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 4 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Archives of Sexual Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Clinical Aspects of Sex Determination and Chromosomal Abnormalities
- Keywords
- 2D:4D digit ratio, heritability, prenatal hormone exposure, sexual orientation, nonshared environment, monozygotic twins, handedness, masculinization, feminization
- MeSH terms
- Androgens, Anthropometry, Female, Fingers, Humans, Japan, Male, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Twins, Sexuality
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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