Heritability of Word Recognition in Middle-Aged Men Varies as a Function of Parental Education
Abstract
Although it is of lifelong importance, reading ability is studied primarily in children and adolescents. We examined variation in word recognition in 347 middle-aged male twin pairs. Overall heritability (a2) was 0.45, and shared environmental influences (c2) were 0.28. However, parental education moderated heritability such that a2 was 0.21 at the lowest parental education level and 0.69 at the highest level; c2 was 0.52 and 0.00, respectively. This constitutes a parental education x environment interaction. The higher heritability was due to a decrease in the magnitude of shared environmental factors, rather than an increase in the magnitude of genetic factors. Other cognitive studies have reported gene x environment interactions, but patterns may differ as a function of age or specific cognitive abilities. Our results suggest that shared environmental factors in families with low parental education have long-lasting effects on word recognition ability, well beyond any critical period for developing reading proficiency.
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Other studies have failed to replicate the G × SES finding, including the largest sample to date.
“Other studies, however, have failed to replicate the finding (Bartels, van Beijsterveldt, & Boomsma, 2009; Kremen et al., 2005; Soden-Hensler, 2012; van der Sluis, Willemsen, de Geus, Boomsma, & Posthuma, 2008), including the largest sample to date (Hanscombe et al., 2012).”
From Large Cross-National Differences in Gene × Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Intelligence (2016) · cites this paper as Kremen et al., 2005
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Self-citationGenetics and Neuropsychology: A Merger Whose Time Has Come
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Reynolds, C. A., Finkel, D., & Zavala, C. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7447-0_6 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Vinkhuyzen, A., van der Sluis, S., & Posthuma, D. (2012) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/twin.15.1.87 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Previous studies (Kremen et al., 2005; van der Sluis et al., 2008; Vinkhuyzen et al., 2010b), however, demon- strated that shared environmental factors for general cognitive ability can seem absent in the full sample, while they are actually substantial for specific levels of a moder- ator.”
BackgroundJacobson, K., Hoffman, C. L., Vasilopoulos, T., Kremen, W., Panizzon, M., Grant, M., Lyons, M., Xian, H., & Franz, C. (2012) · Anthrozoos · doi:10.2752/175303712x13479798785814 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Methods Sample and Procedure Data were obtained from Wave 1 of the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging (VETSA), a longitudinal study of cognition and aging beginning in midlife (Kremen et al. 2005).”
MethodSelf-citationLi, M., DeMille, M., Lovett, M. W., Bosson-Heenan, J. M., Frijters, J. C., Gruen, J., Boada, R., Gottwald, S., Hill, D., Jacobson, L. A., et al. (2024) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-024-00247-5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“G × E interactions have been examined in reading abilities and disabilities 1,12,20,43 but the fi ndings are mixed.”
Dong, L.-C., Giangrande, E., Womack, S. R., Yoo, K. G., Beam, C., Jacobson, K., & Turkheimer, E. (2023) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-023-10145-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“While much evidence supporting the Scarr-Rowe hypothesis are from studies of children and adolescents, many analyses that found partial or no support for the Scarr-Rowe effect used samples that mainly consisted of adults (Kremen et al. 2005; Van der Sluis et al. 2008).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationChernov, D. (2017) · doi:10.24075/brsmu.2017-03-09 · Cited by 2
“At that, the contribution of the shared environment decreases or remains unchanged [34, 35].”
BackgroundYang, Q. Y., Chen, C., Wang, Z., Belsky, J., & Zhao, J. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14060507 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Kremen et al. (2005) first investigated this theory in middle-aged twins, and found that the heritability of reading recognition ability during midlife was higher in individuals due to the decreasing variance in common environmental influences with increasing PE [13].”
BackgroundA Twin Study of Spatial and Non-Spatial Delayed Response Performance in Middle Age
Kremen, W., Mai, T., Panizzon, M., Franz, C., Blankfeld, H. M., Xian, H., Eisen, S., Tsuang, M., & Lyons, M. (2011) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2011.03.004 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“45 based on the continuous measure (Kremen et al., 2005).”
ResultSelf-citationBicona, D., Mountford, H., Bridges, E. C., Fontanillas, P., Martin, N. G., Fisher, S., Bates, T., Luciano, M., Agee, M., Aslibekyan, S., et al. (2025) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-025-10230-4
Li, M., DeMille, M., Lovett, M., Bosson-Heenan, J. M., Frijters, J. C., & Gruen, J. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2786924/v1
“For example, Kremen et al. (2005) 43 found a shared environment x parental education interaction but not genetic x parental education interaction in a middle-aged men sample.”
Background
- Authors
- Kremen, W. S., Jacobson, K. C., Xian, H., Eisen, S. A., Waterman, B., Toomey, R., Neale, M. C., Tsuang, M. T., & Lyons, M. J.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kremen, William S.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Behavior Genetics
- Published
- 2005-07
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 417-433
- ISSN
- 0001-8244 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3297
- OpenAlex
- W2117298995
- Cited by
- 76
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 7.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Behavior Genetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense
- U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01AA010586, 1 R01 AA10586)
- National Institute on Aging (AG18386-012A2, R01AG022381, AG18386-012A1, R01AG018386)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- word recognition, reading skills, heritability, parental education, gene-environment interaction, shared environment, middle-aged men, twins, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Dyslexia, Educational Status, Environment, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Parent-Child Relations, Semantics, Inheritance Patterns
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