The DOI matches its Crossref record; 80 of the 83 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Psychological Distress in Refugee Children: A Systematic Review
Abstract
Nearly one-quarter of the refugees worldwide are children. There have been numerous studies reporting their levels of psychological distress. The aim of this paper is to review systematically and synthesize the epidemiological research concerning the mental health of refugee children residing in Western countries. A Cochrane Collaboration style review was conducted searching nine major databases, bibliographies, and grey literature from 2003 to 2008. Included studies had to meet the reporting standards of STROBE and investigate mental health in non-clinical samples of asylum seeking and refugee children residing in OECD countries. A total of twenty-two studies were identified of 4,807 retrieved citations, covering 3,003 children from over 40 countries. Studies varied in definition and measurement of problems, which included levels of post-traumatic stress disorder from 19 to 54%, depression from 3 to 30%, and varying degrees of emotional and behavioral problems. Significant factors influencing levels of distress appear to include demographic variables, cumulative traumatic pre-migration experiences, and post-migration stressors. Importantly, the research base demands greater contextual and methodological refining such that future research would have greater generalizability and clinical implications.
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In the citing paper
“Previous research has documented increased post-traumatic stress and depression levels among refugee youth (Bronstein and Montgomery, 2011).”
From Investigating the potential of a novel internet-based cognitive behavioural intervention for Dari and Farsi speaking refugee youth: A feasibility study (2022) · cites this paper as Bronstein and Montgomery, 2011
In the citing paper
“The decision to investigate an individually tailored intervention potentially addresses the high comorbidity among refugee youth (Bronstein and Montgomery, 2011; Păsărelu et al., 2017).”
From Investigating the potential of a novel internet-based cognitive behavioural intervention for Dari and Farsi speaking refugee youth: A feasibility study (2022) · cites this paper as Bronstein and Montgomery, 2011
In the citing paper
“More than half of refugees are children who are at increased risk for the development of mental disorders (Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011; Charlson et al., 2019).”
From Feasibility trial of a scalable transdiagnostic group psychological intervention for Syrians residing in a refugee camp (2021) · cites this paper as Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011
In the citing paper
“and thus female gender may be a risk factor for the development of PTSD and depression [4].”
From Examining cognitive behavioral therapy interventions for unaccompanied minors: a systematic review and qualitative research synthesis. (2025) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Many reports indicate that refugee youth experience high rates of psychological distress [14–16].”
From Effectiveness of a brief group behavioral intervention for common mental disorders in Syrian refugees in Jordan: a randomized controlled trial (2022) · cites this paper as [14]
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“[55] summarize that refugee children experience high psychological distress, with prevalence rates for PTSD ranged from 19 to 54% and depression ranging from 3 to 30% in their review.”
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Minke, K. M., & Woodford, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.030 · Cited by 6
Mohamed, S. (2012) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · doi:10.15123/pub.3036 · Cited by 4
“Lower language levels were related to higher PTSD scores in Bronstein and Montgomery’s (2011) systematic review. McBrien (2005) noted that many refugee children deal with adversity when migrating to a new country and learning a new culture, and learning a new language of instruction further compounds these efforts.”
BackgroundForced separation, ruptured kinship and transnational family life
Shapiro, D. K., & Montgomery, E. (2019) · Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) · doi:10.1017/9781108602105 · Cited by 2
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Teja, Z., & Worrell, F. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.036 · Cited by 2
KESKİN, Z. (2022) · ViraVerita E-Dergi · doi:10.47124/viraverita.1193081 · Cited by 2
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“For example, across studies utilizing samples of children from refugee and asylum-seeking backgrounds, high prevalence rates of various psychopatholo-gies, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, have been documented (Blackmore et al., 2020; Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011).”
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BackgroundPsychological Distress, Emotional Intelligence, and Sleep Quality among University Students
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“Exposure to potentially traumatic events, such as experiencing an attack or torture, as seen during conflict-related forced displacement, can cause significant psychological distress in children and affected groups (Bronstein and Montgomery 2011).”
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“…illustrated the prevalence of psychological disorders that refugee students might be vulnerable to including post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011) and therefore it makes sense that these outcomes were often evaluated.”
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Çelik, S. B., & Özkan, E. (2025) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000044856 · Cited by 2
“[8] The ability to control one’s emotions evolves with age and experience.”
Llorente, A. M., Soong, C., Friedrich, E., Shields, B., Cohen, P., Dias, E., Lawless, S. A., & Steigmeyer, H. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology · doi:10.1007/s40817-017-0034-3 · Cited by 2
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“The estimated prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression among resettled refugee children is 54% and 30%, respectively (Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011), compared to 5% and 11% in the general U.S. youth population (Merikangas et al., 2010).”
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“Their refugee trauma experiences are likely to be further compounded by the stressors they encounter in transition, settlement and acculturation (Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011).”
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“The results from a systematic review of the psychological distress in refugee children showed that the level of PTSD varies from 1% to 54% and the level of depression varies from 3% to 30% (Bronstein and Montgomery 2011).”
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“They can lead to behavioural problems, sleeping disorders, eating problems, generalized pain, or bedwetting (Heptinstall et al. , 2004; Ehntholt & Yule, 2006; Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011; Pacione et al. , 2013; Dangmann et al. , 2022).”
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“…health and the factors that affect them, for the following reasons: First, existing meta-analysis studies have been focused on immigrant children’s mental health (Aghajafari et al., 2020; Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011; Lawton & Spencer, 2021), and less attention has been paid to immigrant parents.”
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“…not only seem to negatively affect the processing of past experiences but have also been found to exacerbate existing mental health problems (Behrendt et al., 2022; Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011; Hornfeck et al., 2023; Montgomery & Foldspang, 2008; Scharpf et al., 2021; Vervliet et al., 2014).”
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Triple crisis among refugee youth resettled in high-income countries
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Zijlstra, E. A., Kalverboer, M., Post, W. J., ten Brummelaar, M., & Knorth, E. J. (2015) · Kind en adolescent · doi:10.1007/s12453-014-0068-6 · Cited by 1
Persoonsgerichte zorg bij mensen met een migratieachtergrond
van der Velden, J. H. M. (2018) · Bijblijven · doi:10.1007/s12414-018-0306-6 · Cited by 1
Tashtoush, R. A. (2016) · International Journal of Research in Education and Psychology · doi:10.12785/ijrep/040105 · Cited by 1
Nurhas, I., Boutouil, M., Geisler, S., & Pawlowski, J. Μ. (2020) · EDULEARN proceedings · doi:10.21125/edulearn.2020.1763 · Cited by 1
A Generation 1.5 Palestinian Diaspora Child Refugee in Chile
Martini, H. A., Leihy, P. S., & Samari, D. (2020) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2020.1819020 · Cited by 1
“Cumulative trauma increases symptom complexity (Briere et al., 2008; Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011) and the possibility of post-traumatic stress disorder (Fazel et al., 2005).”
BackgroundSchool Psychologists in Early Childhood Settings
Alfonso, V. C., Ruby, S. F., Wissel, A. M., & Davari, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.033 · Cited by 1
Addressing “Won’t Do” Issues in Mathematics
Skinner, C. H., Wright, S. P., & McCallum, E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.003 · Cited by 1
Cross-Race/Ethnic Friendships in School
Graham, S., & Kogachi, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235532.011 · Cited by 1
Greene, M. A., & Nasir, S. L. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-54441-6_137 · Cited by 1
Çeri, V. (2021) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8544-3.ch004 · Cited by 1
Ott, E., & Montgomery, P. (2013) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.113 · Cited by 1
Self-citationPetermann, F., & Petermann, U. (2019) · Kindheit und Entwicklung · doi:10.1026/0942-5403/a000283 · Cited by 1
Cohen, B. J. (2016) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 1
More than Meets the Eye: Immigrant and Refugee Adjustment, Education, and Acculturation in Canada
Georgis, R. (2014) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3ft39 · Cited by 1
Experiences of Coping in Young Unaccompanied Refugees in the UK
Scott, J. M. (2018) · University of Hertfordshire Research Archive (University of Hertfordshire) · doi:10.18745/th.20193 · Cited by 1
“A meta-analysis of psychiatric survey-based research found that 10% of refugees meet clinical criteria for PTSD (Fazel, Wheeler & Danesh, 2005), and a systematic review of distress in child refugees found that studies varied from 19% to 54% meeting PTSD criteria (Bronstein & Montgomery, 2011).”
BackgroundSundquist, K. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1927 · Cited by 1
Experiences of school nurses caring for newly arrived immigrant and refugee children
Brady, J. A. (2020) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20356165 · Cited by 1
Refugee parent's perspectives on preschool enrollment after migration and resettlement.
Stovall, K. (2019) · doi:10.18297/etd/3987 · Cited by 1
Gruppenpsychotherapie mit traumatisierten Flüchtlingen
Joksimović, L., Schröder, M., & Kunzke, D. (2014) · Ärztliche Psychotherapie und Psychosomatische Medizin
Metadata
- Authors
- Bronstein, I., & Montgomery, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bronstein, Israel
- Venue
- Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review
- Published
- 2011-03
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 44-56
- ISSN
- 1096-4037 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2827
- OpenAlex
- W2099969597
- Cited by
- 634
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 128 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Migration and Exile Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Education and experiences of immigrants and refugees
- Keywords
- refugee children, psychological distress, mental health, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, emotional and behavioral problems, asylum seekers, pre-migration trauma, post-migration stressors, Western countries
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Child, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Refugees, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Stress, Psychological, Resilience, Psychological
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