The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note
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A novel behavioural screening questionnaire, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), was administered along with Rutter questionnaires to parents and teachers of 403 children drawn from dental and psychiatric clinics. Scores derived from the SDQ and Rutter questionnaires were highly correlated; parent‐teacher correlations for the two sets of measures were comparable or favoured the SDQ. The two sets of measures did not differ in their ability to discriminate between psychiatric and dental clinic attenders. These preliminary findings suggest that the SDQ functions as well as the Rutter questionnaires while offering the following additional advantages: a focus on strengths as well as difficulties; better coverage of inattention, peer relationships, and prosocial behaviour; a shorter format; and a single form suitable for both parents and teachers, perhaps thereby increasing parent‐teacher correlations.
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In line with DSM-IV criteria, the impact supplement from the SDQ was used to confirm that symptoms had been present before age 7, for at least 6 months, and that impairment was found in multiple settings.
“In line with DSM-IV criteria, we also used the impact supplement from the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) to confirm that the symptoms had been present before age 7, for at least 6 months, and that impairment was found in multiple settings.”
From Multiple deficits in ADHD: executive dysfunction, delay aversion, reaction time variability, and emotional deficits (2013) · cites this paper as Goodman, 1997
The Introduction identifies and describes the SDQ, so the citation supports the instrument’s identity. But the Methods describe its 25-item questionnaire, not an impact supplement; neither those passages nor the questionnaire text establish that the supplement confirms onset before age 7, symptoms lasting at least six months, or impairment across settings. The questionnaire asks respondents to consider behaviour over the last six months, which is not a requirement that symptoms have persisted for that long. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe SDQ is a well validated instrument and has been proven to be as effective as both the Child Behavior Checklist and the Rutter Scales in identifying clinically significant levels of behavioural disturbance in children.
“The SDQ is a well validated instrument and has been proven to be as effective as both the 'Child Behavior Checklist' (Achenbach 1991) and the 'Rutter Scales' (Elander & Rutter 1996) in identifying clinically significant levels of behavioural disturbance in children (Goodman 1997;Goodman & Scott 1999).”
From Psychological acceptance mediates the impact of the behaviour problems of children with intellectual disability on fathers' psychological adjustment. (2010) · cites this paper as Goodman 1997
The Discussion reports equivalent predictive validity for the SDQ and Rutter questionnaires in distinguishing children attending psychiatric versus dental clinics. It says comparable validity with the Child Behavior Checklist was likely, but direct comparisons were still under way. The Conclusion calls the findings initial, so this paper does not establish that the SDQ was proven equally effective as both instruments at identifying clinically significant disturbance in children generally. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBased on standard norming procedures for mental health symptom measures, scores below the LNCG 84th percentile were considered in the normal range.
“Based on standard norming procedures for mental health symptom measures, scores below the LNCG 84th percentile were considered in the normal range.”
From Variable Patterns of Remission From ADHD in the Multimodal Treatment Study of ADHD (2022) · cites this paper as [28]
Appendix B (labeled Conclusion in our copy; page unavailable) uses community-based bands to classify roughly 80% of children as normal on the SDQ. It does not establish an 84th-percentile cutoff for LNCG scores or describe that cutoff as a standard norming procedure. The Discussion also calls its SDQ cutoffs provisional and recommends choosing them according to the sample and study. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe treatment and outcome variables were measured differently (mental health was measured by the SDQ and by parent reports in the previous study), which may have contributed to the discrepancy.
“The treatment and outcome variables were also measured differently (mental health was measured by the SDQ; Goodman, 1997) and by different informants (parent reports were used in the previous study) which may have contributed to the discrepancy.”
From A counterfactual and random intercept cross‐lagged panel analysis of the effects of reading frequency on adolescent mental health in a large longitudinal study (2026) · cites this paper as Goodman, 1997
Conduct problems were assessed using the SDQ Conduct Problems subscale, with satisfactory internal consistency (0.73 at baseline and 0.75 at 13 months).
“Parents completed the 5-item Conduct Problems subscale of the SDQ (Goodman, 1997).”
Emotional symptoms were assessed using the well-validated SDQ Emotional Symptoms subscale, with satisfactory internal consistency (0.73 and 0.71 at baseline and 13 months).
“The Emotional Symptoms subscale of the well-validated Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997) was completed by the youth's parent/guardian.”
Peer problems were assessed using the SDQ Peer Problems subscale, with internal consistency 0.60 at baseline and 0.58 at 13 months.
“Parents completed the 5-item Peer Problems subscale of the SDQ (Goodman, 1997).”
Prosocial behavior (parent report) was assessed using the SDQ Prosocial subscale, with internal consistency 0.74 at baseline and 0.61 at 13 months.
“Parents completed the 5item Prosocial subscale of the SDQ (Goodman, 1997).”
The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire is a short screening questionnaire of psychosocial problems for children and adolescents based on the Rutter Questionnaires and later revised by Goodman to focus on current child psychopathology.
“Psychological and behavioural adjustment in children was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), a short screening questionnaire of psychosocial problems for children and adolescents based on the Rutter Questionnaires and later revised by Goodman to focus on current child psychopathology (Goodman, 1997).”
From Longitudinal associations between reading for pleasure and child maladjustment: Results from a propensity score matching analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Goodman, 1997
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- Authors
- Goodman, R.
- Corresponding author
- Goodman, Robert
- ORCID
- Goodman, Robert
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1997-07
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 581-586
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W2025802167
- Semantic Scholar
- 9a82604c8f67236f621584fd46bfc1a3bb1ebe3b
- Cited by
- 14,908
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 864 · 2025: 1064 · 2024: 999 · 2023: 1030 · 2022: 1041 · 2021: 1042 · 2020: 989 · 2019: 838 · 2018: 772 · 2017: 779 · 2016: 710 · 2015: 695 · 2014: 694 · 2013: 647 · 2012: 499
- FWCI
- 18.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, behavioural screening, child mental health, parent-teacher agreement, inattention, peer relationships, prosocial behavior, questionnaire comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Mental Disorders, Child, Child Behavior, Child Psychiatry, Female, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Social Behavior, Reproducibility of Results
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