CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 0Misinformation and Its ImpactsMedia Influence and PoliticsSocial Media and Politics

Pink slime journalism on Facebook: advertisement trends and political influence (2019–2024)

Open access
Lepird, Christine Sowa, Ng, Lynnette Hui Xian, Carley, Kathleen M.·2026·Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory
DOI 10.1007/s10588-026-09419-7
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Pink slime journalism is a practice where news outlets publish low-quality or inflammatory partisan articles, claiming to be local news networks. This paper examines the spread of pink slime sites on Facebook using public posts from Pages and Groups via the CrowdTangle API. We evaluate the trends of sharing pink slime sites on Facebook and patterns regarding the advertisements purchased by the parent organizations of the pink slime news networks using data from the Facebook Ad Library. Our over time data analysis discovers that while the number of pink slime posts on Facebook pages have decreased over the years, advertising dollars have increased, particularly in swing states. Furthermore, through analyzing the demographic data of the Facebook ad impressions, we see parent organizations like American Independent and Courier targeting a younger and more female population than Metric Media. Using Pearson correlation, we find that the increase in advertising dollars is associated with an increase in Facebook group posts. Further, the advertising expenditure increases during election years, but contentious topics are still discussed during non-election years. By illustrating geographic patterns and themes from US election years of 2020, 2022, and 2024, this research offers insights into emerging ‘local’ journalism tactics, and provides predictions for future US Presidential Elections.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper analyzes pink slime journalism on Facebook from 2019–2024, combining CrowdTangle posts with Facebook Ad Library spending data. It finds that while organic page posting declined, paid advertising increased sharply, especially in swing states and during election years.

Key findings

  • Pink slime Facebook ad spending rose over time, from $21,713 in 2018 to $7,952,185 in 2024, with election-year spikes in 2020, 2022, and 2024; meanwhile, page posts linking to pink slime sites decreased, as Metric Media’s page posts fell from 392,849 in 2020 to 4,735 in the first 8 months of 2024.
  • Ad spending concentrated in swing states: the top ten states by ad spend were North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Arizona, Michigan, Nevada, Wisconsin, Ohio, Georgia, Texas, and West Virginia. The only statistically significant state-level Pearson correlation was 2020 voter spread, with r = −0.52 for both 2022 and 2024, indicating more spending in closer races.
  • Targeting differed by organization: American Independent and Courier Newsroom ads reached more women than men (69.6% and 57.2% female, respectively) and mostly people under 55, while Metric Media reached more men than women (49.8% male) and mostly users over 55.
  • Ad spend and organic Facebook group posts showed a weak positive association (linear trend line R² = 0.35), but the paper states this is not evidence of causation.

Methods

  • Used CrowdTangle API to collect public Facebook Page and Group posts linking to Tow Center pink slime domains from 2019 through August 2024: 1,108,059 Page posts and 43,357 Group posts, from 12,644 Pages linking to 531 domains and 8,528 Groups linking to 198 domains.
  • Used Facebook Ad Library to collect ads from parent organizations Courier, Metric Media, and American Independent: 14,581 ad posts from 310 Facebook Pages linking to 383 unique domains; no ads were found for Star and Local Report.
  • Analyzed temporal and geographic trends, ad demographics, word clouds of ad messaging, and Pearson correlations between state variables and 2022/2024 ad spend.

Limitations

  • The paper states that CrowdTangle data may be biased because API access was provided by Facebook, and CrowdTangle shut down in August 2024, causing missing post-election data and limiting replication with the same source.
  • The paper states that ad data and post data are fundamentally different and hard to reconcile: ad data has impressions but no engagement metrics, while post data has engagement but no impressions, so the authors could not directly link ad exposure to subsequent group posting.
  • Evident from the text: 2024 Page and Group post data are incomplete because they end in August 2024, while 2024 ad data are complete, so comparisons involving 2024 organic posting are constrained.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10588-026-09419-7

Cites

18 of 19 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

5 of 17 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    17.7% of visits to pink slime sites are referred by Facebook.

    “17.7% of visits to pink slime sites are referred by Facebook (Moore et al. 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moore et al. 2023 source
  • Premisecitation

    At least 3.7% of American adults visited at least one pink slime site during the 2020 Presidential elections period.

    “research from Stanford University analyzed news consumption of pink slime sites and found that at least 3.7% of American adults visited at least one pink slime site during the 2020 Presidential elections period (Moore et al. 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moore et al. 2023 source

      The RQ1/RQ3/RQ4 results estimate that 3.7% of American adults were exposed to at least one pink slime website from August 24 to December 7, 2020, and the Summary of Findings describes this as visiting a site. But 3.7% is an estimate, not a lower bound: its reported 95% confidence interval is 2.3–5.2%, so the phrase “at least 3.7%” overstates the finding. Page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    15% of referrals to fake news sites come from Facebook.

    “15% of referrals to fake news sites are coming from Facebook (Guess et al. 2020)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guess et al. 2020 source

      In Results, ‘Gateways to untrustworthy websites,’ Facebook appeared among the three sites visited in the preceding 30 seconds for 15.1% of observed articles from untrustworthy news websites. The paper explicitly says it could not directly observe referring sites, so this does not establish that 15% of referrals came from Facebook. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Facebook is the social media platform most commonly used for referral URLs to pink slime news sites.

    “Facebook was chosen because it is the social media platform that is most commonly used for referral URLs to pink slime news sites (Moore et al. 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moore et al. 2023 source
  • Findingown data

    The number of pink slime posts on Facebook pages decreased over the years.

    “while the number of pink slime posts on Facebook pages have decreased over the years”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • May combine two claims. 60
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 5

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Pink slime news sites are characterized by algorithmically generated websites, with visually similar content, layouts and origins.

    “Pink slime news sites are characterized by algorithmicallygenerated websites, with visually similar content, layouts and origins (Burton and Koehorst 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Burton and Koehorst 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Metric Media spent heavily and broadly, producing ads that targeted older men in a wide number of states.

    “Metric Media, the largest player in the space, spent heavily and broadly, producing ads that targeted older men in a wide number of states.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    There is a weak positive relationship between ad spend and organic conversation, with a linear trend line R2 = 0.35.

    “we still observe a linear trend line (R 2 = 0.35) which indicates a weak positive relationship between ad spend and organic conversation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    American Independent is the organization with the least ad spend, starting with purchasing ads in just 2022.

    “The American Independent is the organization with the least ad spend, starting with purchasing ads in just 2022.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    While advertisement impressions have increased over the years, the total number of posts in Facebook pages has decreased since 2020.

    “While advertisement impressions have increased over the years, the total number of posts in Facebook pages has decreased since 2020”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Advertisement expenditure and group posts are generally focused on swing states and audiences with vulnerable demographics.

    “advertisement expenditure and group posts are generally focused on swing states and audience with vulnerable demographics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Local Report had minimal page posts-only 28, all in 2022 except one in 2023.

    “they had minimal page posts -only 28, all in 2022 except for one in 2023.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Metric Media owns hundreds of pink slime sites, whereas the other four organizations own fewer than 15 each.

    “Metric Media owns hundreds of these pink slime sites whereas the other four organizations own fewer than 15 of these sites each.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    American Independent spent $331,713 on Facebook ads in 2022 and $415,990 in 2023.

    “In 2022 alone they spend $331,713 on Facebook ads and they proceed to spend more on ads in 2023”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Ads about courts highlight state supreme and high courts and are not necessarily political or partisan in nature.

    “These ads highlight that state supreme and high courts, and are not necessarily political or partisan in nature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The study collected posts from 12,644 Facebook pages linking to 531 unique pink slime domains and posts across 8,528 Facebook groups linking to 198 unique pink slime domains.

    “In total, we collected posts from 12,644 Facebook pages, linking to 531 unique pink slime domains; and posts across 8,528 Facebook groups, linking to 198 unique pink slime domains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Metric Media has spent more on ads ($1,927,128.50) than American Independent but less than Courier.

    “Metric Media has spent more on ads ($1,927,128.50)than American Independent but less than Courier.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Ad expenditure during years between elections drastically diminished.

    “Ad expenditure during the years between elections drastically diminished”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Three of the top four ads by impression in 2022 were purchased by left-leaning American Independent, criticizing Georgia senate candidate Herschel Walker, and garnered over 3 million impressions from 9 distinct ads.

    “Three of the top four ads (by impression) in 2022 were purchased by left-leaning American Independent, criticizing Georgia senate candidate, Herschel Walker, and garnering over 3 million impressions from 9 distinct ads.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Facebook groups that shared pink slime news had a median subscriber count of 1,075 members and frequently contained local community names in their group names.

    “These groups have a median subscriber count of 1,075 group members, and frequently contain local community names within their group names.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingnone given

    Courier spent heavily on advertising to Iowa, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, and seemed to have discontinued advertising after the 2020 elections.

    “Courier spent heavily on advertising to Iowa, Michigan and Pennsylvania”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Courier has seen a total of 51,933 posts from Facebook pages, with the plurality in 2020 (15,460 posts).

    “They have seen a total of 51,933 posts from Facebook pages with the plurality coming in 2020 (15,460 posts).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Courier purchased Facebook ads in 2018 ($495), 2019 ($166,347), and 2020 ($910,158.50), then returned with ads in December 2023 ($996) and 2024 ($6,909,696.50).

    “Courier purchased Facebook ads in 2018 ($495), 2019 ($166,347) and 2020 ($910,158.50)before going on a break and returning with vigor leading up to the 2024 presidential election by buying ads in December 2023 ($996) and 2024 ($6,909,696.50).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Pearson correlation coefficient between 2020 voter spread and ad spend is -0.52 for 2022 and -0.52 for 2024.

    “The values (-0.52 for 2022 as well as for 2024) indicate that pink slime organizations are attempting to exert influence in the closest of races that they believe could flip; the larger the voter spread for each state in 2020, the fewer financial resources were allocated to the state in the form of ad spend during the following election years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In 2024, pink slime ads took a more national approach, with top politicians mentioned being Joe Biden, Kamala Harris, and Donald Trump.

    “The focus of 2024, the ads took a more national approach, with their top politicians mentioned being candidates Joe Biden, Kamala Harris, and Donald Trump.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Star had no known ads purchased on Facebook but has active Facebook pages.

    “Star had no known ads purchased on Facebook, but unlike the Local Report, they have active Facebook pages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Facebook groups have posted Metric Media news sites 5,409 times, with the highest year being 2022 (1,489 posts) followed by 2020 (1,011 posts).

    “Facebook groups have posted their news sites 5,409 times with the highest year being in 2022 (1,489 posts) followed by 2020 (1,011 posts).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    American Independent started advertising in the 2022 elections and mostly targeted women under 55 years old.

    “American Independent started advertising in the 2022 Elections and mostly targeted women under 55 years old.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    During election years, ad spending increases drastically.

    “During election years, ad spending increases drastically”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Metric Media's Facebook page posts decreased to 213,249 in 2022 and 4,735 in the first 8 months of 2024.

    “These numbers then rapidly decreased, with 213,249 in 2022 and just 4,735 in the first 8 months of 2024.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The election years of 2020 and 2024 observed a spike in ad spend, and the election year of 2022 observed the next highest ad spending.

    “the election years of 2020 and 2024 observed a spike in ad spend, and subsequently the election year of 2022 observed the next highest ad spending.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Courier had 8,829 page posts in 2022 and 7,110 page posts in the first 8 months of 2024.

    “In 2022 they only had 8,829 page posts and for the first 8 months of 2024 they had 7,110 page posts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Star's page posts increased from 23,826 in 2020 to 32,151 in 2022 but declined to 3,035 in the first 8 months of 2024.

    “The page posts increased from 2020 (23,826 posts) to 2022 (32,151 posts) but declined for the first 8 months of 2024 (3,035 posts).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Pink slime news organizations have increased their advertising expenditure across the years, and there has been a similar increase in organic conversation on social media towards the stories the pink slime websites report.

    “pink slime news organizations have increased in their advertising expenditure across the years, and there has been a similar increase in organic conversation on social media towards the stories the pink slime websites report.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Election years saw surges in political messaging, while off-cycle years featured court cases and policy related stories that the sites used to maintain page activity and audience conversation.

    “The election years saw surges in political messaging, while off-cycle years featured court cases and policy related stories”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    There were 20,400 instances of Facebook pages and 6,682 instances of Facebook groups sharing links to American Independent's news sites, with plurality in 2020; vast majority were to the American Independent parent site, not smaller swing-state sites.

    “There were 20,400 instances of Facebook pages and 6,682 instances of Facebook groups sharing links to the American Independent's news sites”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Courier has the second highest number of group shares, with a total of 9,376 posts to Facebook groups linking to their news sites; biggest year was 2020 (3,875 posts).

    “Courier has the second highest number of group shares -with a total of 9,376 posts to Facebook groups linking to their news sites; their biggest year for group shares was 2020 (3,875 posts).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    In election periods and targeted locations such as swing states, there is increased organic page activity, revealing an association between pink slime advertisement activity and organic engagement.

    “there is also an increased organic page activity, revealing an association between the pink slim advertisement activity and organic engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    During election years, the focus of pink slime news websites was heavily on politics during the elections.

    “During the election years, the focus of pink slime news websites were heavily on the politics during the elections.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Courier purchased ads through 2020 then stopped until December 2023, and American Independent purchased ads from 2022 to 2024.

    “Courier purchased ads through 2020 then stopped doing so until December 2023, and American Independent purchased ads 2022-2024.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 10 largest Facebook page sharers were official social media accounts for Star platforms and account for 85% of posts to Facebook pages linking to their 11 news sites.

    “The 10 largest Facebook page sharers were the official social media accounts for these platforms and account for 85% of the posts to Facebook pages that linked to their 11 news sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Three of the five largest known pink slime organizations purchased Facebook ads throughout the examined period, and Metric Media was the only organization to consistently purchase ads across all time periods.

    “three of the five largest and known pink slime organizations purchased Facebook ads throughout the time period we examined, and Metric Media was the only organization to consistently purchase ads across all time periods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Star had peaks in Facebook group activity in 2020 and again in 2023.

    “Star had peaks in 2020 and then again in 2023”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    During election years, the conversations naturally turn political.

    “the conversations naturally turn political”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The data collection yielded 1,108,059 posts from Facebook pages and 43,357 posts from Facebook groups.

    “Overall, this data collection yielded 1,108,059 posts from the pages and 43,357 posts from groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Metric Media has the most prolific activity on Facebook posts, posting news stories relating to all states on pages.

    “Metric Media has the most prolific activity on Facebook posts, posting news stories relating to all states on pages.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Metric Media increased ad spend to $400,039 in 2022 and $977,253 in 2024.

    “in 2022, they increased ad spend significantly, up to $400,039 during the midterm year and final to $977,253 during the 2024 presidential election year.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Star's news sites have been posted to groups 21,878 times, with highest posting frequency in 2023 (5,755 posts).

    “Their news sites have been posted to groups 21,878 times; the highest posting frequency was in the year 2023 (5,755 posts).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Right-leaning Metric Media garnered over 350,000 total impressions in 2022 with an ad titled 'As Pennsylvanians receive fourth stimulus check...'.

    “Right-leaning Metric Media, however, garnered over 350,000 total impressions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The study collected 14,581 advertisement posts shared from 310 Facebook pages, linking to 383 unique domains, the majority of which are direct pink slime domains.

    “We collected 14,581 advertisement posts shared from 310 Facebook pages, linking to 383 unique domains, the majority of which are direct pink slime domains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Local Report is a new player in this space, having only posted on Facebook during the 2022 elections.

    “Local Report is a new player in this space, having only posted on Facebook during the 2022 elections.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In general, advertising impressions increase drastically during election years and decrease during years in between elections.

    “the advertising impressions increase drastically during election years, and decreases during the years in between elections.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Metric Media started advertising in 2019 and spent $208,604.50 during the 2020 presidential election year.

    “They started in 2019 and spent $208,604.50during the 2020 presidential election year.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    American Independent and Courier target a younger and more female population than Metric Media.

    “we see parent organizations like American Independent and Courier targeting a younger and more female population than Metric Media”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Facebook ad impression demographic data accurately reflect the populations targeted by the ads.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Pink slime sites do not appear to have foreign ties but are currently financed by political candidates and political action committees with the hope of swaying election results.

    “These sites do not appear to have foreign ties, but are currently financed by political candidates and political action committees with the hope of swaying election results (Bengani 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bengani 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Metric Media is the largest and most prominent pink slime organization, controlling vast swaths of pink slime sites.

    “The largest and the most prominent organization is Metric Media, which controls vast swaths of pink slime sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Left-leaning sites generally target younger women, while right-leaning sites generally target older men.

    “It seems that left-leaning sites generally target younger women, while right-leaning sites generally target older men.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Facebook ad impression demographic data accurately reflect the populations targeted by the ads.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Around 70% of Americans rely on Facebook for their news consumption.

    “Around 70% of Americans rely on the social media platform Facebook for their news consumption (Gramlich 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gramlich 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metric Media algorithmically generates most of its content and prioritizes state and national partisan content at the expense of local news.

    “Metric Media has been shown to algorithmically generate most of its content, and it prioritizes the publication of state and national partisan content at the expense of local news (Royal and Napoli 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Royal and Napoli 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The authors could not directly draw a line between the two datasets when analyzing RQ2, but a more generalizable analysis was performed and the data is presented for future reference.

    “The authors, therefore, could not directly draw a line between the two datasets when analyzing RQ2”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Pink slime organizations exploit and fill gaps in local journalism such as reduced manpower and the branding of local news.

    “pink slime organizations exploit and fill the gaps in local journalism such as the reduced manpower and the branding of local news.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The pivot from naming local elections and states to naming the newspapers in ads may indicate increased brand awareness and trust among the audience in these sites as serving their local communities.

    “may indicate an increased brand awareness and trust among the audience in these sites as serving their local communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The strategy of running court-related ads between elections may be to establish the Facebook Pages as a nonpartisan, trustworthy local news outlet when not actively pushing a political message, and to keep organizations active and visible during down time.

    “This strategy may be to establish the Facebook Pages sharing the news as a nonpartisan, trustworthy local news outlet”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The ad data and post data are fundamentally different and challenging to reconcile.

    “the ad data and the post data are fundamentally different and challenging to reconcile.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This research was conducted with IRB approval in Spring 2024 (FWA00004206, IRB00000603).

    “This research was conducted with IRB approval in the Spring of 2024”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The success of pink slime journalism on social media platforms is understudied.

    “overall, the success of pink slime journalism on social media platforms is understudied.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Metric Media is the largest known parent organization of pink slime and has several sub-networks associated with and sharing IP space with main Metric Media sites.

    “Metric Media is the largest known parent organization of pink slime”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bengani 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationown data

    The collected dataset provides a representation of pink slime journalism on Facebook in the context of the US Elections, facilitating future studies of this phenomenon.

    “This dataset provides a representation of pink slime journalism on Facebook in the context of the US Elections, thereby facilitating future studies of this phenomenon.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    This finding is consistent with past work that observed significant publications by Metric Media in Ohio, Michigan, Texas, California and Illinois.

    “This is consistent with past work which has also observed significant publications by Metric Media in Ohio, Michigan, Texas, California and Illinois”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Royal and Napoli 2022

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Pink slime journalism is a growing phenomenon in the US and the world, leveraging on the public's trust of local news sites to dispense political news.

    “Pink slime journalism is a growing phenomenon in the US and the world”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Facebook ad impressions and ad spend are meaningful indicators of influence or reach in political messaging.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The ad data has impressions but no engagement metrics, while the post data has no impression data but has engagement data.

    “While the ad data has impressions, it has no engagement metrics; however, the post data has no impression data, but it has engagement data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The observed relationships are indicative of correlation through measures of statistical association within the data studied but are not evidence that changes in ad spend directly change the conversation on social media.

    “The relationships observed are indicative of correlation through measures of statistical association (including Pearson correlation) within the data studied but now evidence that changes in the ad spend directly change the conversation on social media.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study only uses public data and does not involve personally identifiable information; it analyzed aggregate information, not personal or individual information.

    “Our study only uses public data and does not involve any personally identifiable information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Pink slime journalism is a salient case where AI-enabled content production is used for algorithmically generated websites to target specific population groups and mimic legitimate local journalism, ultimately shaping public opinion at scale.

    “Pink Slime journalism is a salient case where AI-enabled content production is used for algorithmically generated websites to target specific population groups and mimic legitimate local journalism, ultimately shaping public opinion at scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Iowa had the 15th highest ad spend due to its unique position as the first state in the country to hold an electoral event with its caucus every four years.

    “Iowa had the 15th highest ad spend due to its unique position as the first state in the country to hold an electoral event with its caucus every four years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    CrowdTangle was shut down in August 2024, resulting in lack of post-election data and preventing replication with the exact same data source.

    “CrowdTangle was shut down in August 2024, which resulted in the lack of post-election data”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Pink slime networks like Metric Media already operate as coordinated ecosystems that strategically tailor their content to the local state audience.

    “Pink Slime networks like Metric Media already operate as coordinated ecosystems that strategi-cally tailor their content to the local state audience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Metric Media's goal seems to be to reach every corner of the United States with strong focus on Illinois, where founder Brian Timpone resides.

    “Their goal seems to be to reach every corner of the United States with strong focus on Illinois”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Talking about court cases and lawsuits between elections is a technique to keep Facebook accounts and pages active and fresh in people's memory.

    “This is a technique to keep the Facebook accounts and pages active and fresh in people's memory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
74 of 74

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Facebook ad impression demographic data accurately reflect the populations targeted by the ads.

    “When we assess the differences in the demographics of those targeted by the pink slime Facebook ads (Table 3), we notice gender and age shifts between the organizations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Facebook Ad Library ad expenditure data are complete and accurate for the parent organizations' Facebook ad spending.

    “This dataset was collected using the Facebook Ad Library 3 .The dataset consists of posts that pink slime parent organizations paid to promote on Facebook pages, the amount of money known pink slime organizations spent on advertisements posts per state, and the impressions garnered.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Tow Center's list of pink slime websites is comprehensive for pink slime domains in the United States.

    “The seed dataset is the list of all the pink slime news domains in the Tow Center's comprehensive list of pink slime websites in the United States (Bengani 2022).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The political leanings of the pink slime organizations are correctly identified as conservative for Metric Media and Star and liberal for Local Report, Courier, and American Independent.

    “The largest organizations, Metric Media and Star, are known for their politically conservative leanings while Local Report, Courier, and American Independent have liberal political leanings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Facebook ad impressions and ad spend are meaningful indicators of influence or reach in political messaging.

    “this form of journalism is increasingly becoming an influential digital advertising technique”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • 2018-2024 described as five years

    Minor

    The span from 2018 to 2024 is six elapsed years, or seven calendar years if both endpoints are counted, not five.

    Reported 5 · recomputed 6

  • Local Report posts appear outside 2022

    Minor

    The paper says Local Report only posted on Facebook during the 2022 elections, but then reports one page post in 2023.

  • Courier advertising described as discontinued despite its return

    Minor

    The discussion says Courier appeared to discontinue advertising after 2020, whereas the results report ad purchases in December 2023 and substantial spending in 2024.

  • Figure 1 called an impressions plot but captioned as expenditure

    Minor

    The results describe Figure 1 as plotting advertisement impressions, while its caption identifies it as advertising expenditure.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Le Quéré MA, Jakesch M (2022) Trust in ai in under-resourced environments: Lessons from local journalism. In: CHI ’22: Workshop on Trust and Reliance in AI-Human Teams, New York, NY. ACM
  2. Le Quéré MA, Naaman M, Fields J (2022) Local, social, and online: Comparing the perceptions and impact of local online groups and local media pages on facebook. In: Proceedings of the computation+journalism symposium, New York, NY. C+J
  3. Lepird CS (2025) Pink Slime Measuring, Finding, and Countering Online Threats to Local News. PhD thesis, Carnegie Mellon University

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Authors
Lepird, C. S., Ng, L. H. X., & Carley, K. M.
Affiliations
Carnegie Mellon University (US)
Corresponding author
Lepird, Christine Sowa
ORCID
Venue
Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2026-06-24
Volume
32
Issue
3-4
ISSN
  • 1381-298X (ISSN-L)
  • 1572-9346
DOI
10.1007/s10588-026-09419-7
OpenAlex
W7165631598
Cited by
0
References
14
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
Carnegie Mellon University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
  • Social Sciences › Communication › Social Media and Politics
Keywords
Facebook, political advertising, local news, Facebook page, Facebook groups, targeted advertising, swing states, election year, 2020 US presidential election, 2024 US presidential election

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-01.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-01.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review