Using Social Media for Social Comparison and Feedback-Seeking: Gender and Popularity Moderate Associations with Depressive Symptoms

In the paper

“Importantly, a number of studies have found no association between frequency of technology use and general well being (Gross 2004), nor between frequency of technology use and depressive symptoms (Davila et al. 2012; Jelenchick et al. 2013), further highlighting the inconclusive nature of attempts to characterize overall associations between technology use and psychological outcomes.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross 2004 source
• Supported

  The citation to Davila et al. supports the depressive-symptoms part of the sentence, not the general-well-being part attributed to Gross. The Conclusions state that more frequent social networking use was not associated with depressive symptoms, and the Results report no significant correlations between usage variables and depressive symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Davila et al. 2012 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jelenchick et al. 2013 source

In the paper

“In fact, it may not be the quantity of social networking site usage that longitudinally influences depressive symptoms, but rather the positive or negative quality of peer interactions or behaviors that occur via these technologies (Davila et al. 2012).”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The Results (Longitudinal analyses) report that usage variables did not predict changes in depressive symptoms three weeks later, whereas less positive and more negative interactions did. The Discussion likewise describes quality, rather than quantity, as associated with depressive symptoms over time. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  cites Davila et al. 2012 source

In the paper

“Maladaptive technology-based behaviors, in turn, may be associated with negative online peer feedback, as well as increases in loneliness and depressive symptoms (Burke et al. 2010; Forest and Wood 2012; Selfhout et al. 2009), which may influence future technology use in a cyclical fashion.”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion (p. 4) links greater consumption of friends’ content with loneliness and leaves open whether loneliness leads to more clicking or vice versa. It does not establish a cyclical effect, and the paper does not link these behaviors to negative online peer feedback or increased depressive symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Burke et al. 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Forest and Wood 2012 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Selfhout et al. 2009 source

In the paper

“For example, frequent use of social networking sites may be associated with depressive symptoms (van den Eijnden et al. 2008), short-term declines in subjective well-being (Kross et al. 2013), romantic jealousy (Muise et al. 2009), and the belief that others are happier and living better lives than one’s self (Chou and Edge 2012).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites van den Eijnden et al. 2008 source
• Supported

  The Kross et al. citation is attached specifically to short-term declines in subjective well-being, not to the other outcomes listed in the sentence. The Discussion reports that Facebook use predicted declines in both moment-to-moment feelings and life satisfaction over time. (LLM, conf=0.93)

  cites Kross et al. 2013 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Muise et al. 2009 source

In the paper

“Given the emphasis on photo sharing in today’s popular social networking tools (i.e., Facebook, Instagram), as well as the increased likelihood that girls will post photos compared to boys, it may be that online, girls are drawn to comparisons that are more self-relevant, and thus more threatening to self-worth (Stefanone et al. 2011).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that female participants shared more photos and identified more strongly with appearance-based self-worth; it also discusses appearance threats. The paper does not establish that girls are drawn to more self-relevant online comparisons or that such comparisons threaten their self-worth. That proposed link goes beyond the study's findings. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Stefanone et al. 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The SMFQ has good psychometric properties (Sharp et al. 2006) and has been widely used to assess depressive symptoms in adolescent samples (e.g., Rothon et al. 2009).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sharp et al. 2006 source
• Supported

  Rothon et al. is cited as an example of SMFQ use in an adolescent sample, not as the source for its psychometric properties; that part is cited to Sharp et al. The Methods describe administering the SMFQ to adolescents aged 13–14 to measure depressive symptoms. (LLM, conf=0.92)

  cites Rothon et al. 2009 source

In the paper

“Factor analysis revealed a single 10-item factor indicating engagement in social comparison and feedback-seeking behaviors using technology, as well as other factors relating to the use of technology for general communication with romantic partners, social support seeking, and discussions about sexual health topics (Widman et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Methods section describes questions about six sexual-health topics discussed with dating partners, and the Results report how often adolescents discussed them. Our copy does not report a MEIS factor analysis, a 10-item social-comparison and feedback-seeking factor, or factors for general communication and social support seeking (searched: MEIS, factor analysis, and the named factors). No page numbers were available in the indexed passages. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites Widman et al. 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Furthermore, associations between reassurance-seeking behaviors and depressive symptoms may be particularly strong among adolescent girls, for whom rates of depression are higher in general (Starr and Davila 2008), and given known situational continuities between online and offline contexts (Mikami et al. 2010), this effect may occur online, as well.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Starr and Davila 2008 source
• Supported

  The Discussion states that youths show cross-situational continuity in interpersonal interactions and suggests this continuity extends into the online domain. That supports the online–offline continuity attributed to Mikami et al.; the claim about adolescent girls is cited to Starr and Davila, not to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites Mikami et al. 2010 source

In the paper

“Prior research suggests that individuals lower in popularity and self-esteem receive less positive feedback on their social networking profiles (Mikami et al. 2010) and post updates that are higher in negativity and lower in positivity (Forest and Wood 2012).”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Results (Longitudinal Associations; page unavailable) report that higher peer sociometric status at ages 13–14 predicted more friends posting supportive comments on participants’ web pages, supporting the popularity portion of the clause attributed to Mikami et al. Our copy does not report the same finding for self-esteem. The claim about the positivity of participants’ own updates is cited to Forest and Wood, not Mikami et al., and is not part of this verdict. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites Mikami et al. 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Forest and Wood 2012 source

In the paper

“Popular adolescents, who are higher in self-esteem (Babad 2001), may engage in fewer upward comparisons, experience less negative affect as a result of these comparisons, and receive more positive feedback from peers (Mikami et al. 2010).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Babad 2001 source
• Partly supported

  The Results (Longitudinal Associations Between Early Adolescent Adjustment and Web Page Indicators; page unavailable) report that higher peer status at ages 13–14 predicted more friends posting supportive comments on participants’ social-networking pages at ages 20–22. This supports the positive-feedback portion in that specific setting, but the paper does not address upward comparisons or negative affect resulting from them. The self-esteem assertion is separately attributed to Babad (2001). (LLM, conf=0.87)

  cites Mikami et al. 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“In terms of gender, females may be more likely to compare themselves on dimensions of physical attractiveness based on online photos (Haferkamp and Krämer 2011), perhaps making such photos more self-relevant and threatening to self-worth (Stefanone et al. 2011).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haferkamp and Krämer 2011 source
• Supported

  The Stefanone citation supports the sentence’s tentative point about photos and self-worth, not the preceding claim about comparing attractiveness, which is cited to Haferkamp and Krämer. In the Discussion (page unavailable), females identified more strongly with appearance-based self-worth, and the authors link social-media photo sharing to concerns about appearance threats. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites Stefanone et al. 2011 source

In the paper

“Consistent with hypotheses, technology-based social comparison and feedback-seeking were associated with depressive symptoms.”

In the paper

“No differences were found in levels of depression between racial/ethnic groups.”

In the paper

“Interestingly, although depressive symptoms were positively correlated with concurrent technology use frequency, this association was no longer significant after accounting for other variables in the full regression model, as discussed below.”

In the paper

“Individuals lower in SES reported higher frequencies of technology use and lower levels of popularity (see Table 1).”

In the paper

“No differences emerged between users and non-users of technology in terms of SES or ethnicity.”

In the paper

“For example, as adolescents move toward developing cohesive self-identities, they typically engage in greater levels of social comparison and interpersonal feedback-seeking (Harter 2012).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harter 2012

In the paper

“As such, researchers have suggested the need to examine specific technology-based behaviors, as well as individual, offline characteristics, that may help explain associations between psychological adjustment and frequent technology use (Bessière et al. 2008; Valkenburg and Peter 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bessière et al. 2008 source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Valkenburg and Peter 2013

In the paper

“Thus, adolescents use the features of SNS to both create and consume online content, including profiles, photos, and posts. This allows adolescents to receive constant feedback from their peers and to engage in social comparison processes with them online (Manago et al. 2008).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Manago et al. 2008 source

In the paper

“As adolescents use selective self-presentation strategies to portray themselves online in an ideal manner (Chou and Edge 2012; Gonzales and Hancock 2011), self-focus is heightened, increasing feedback-seeking and social comparison (Manago et al. 2008), perhaps especially upward comparisons, or comparisons with those believed to be of higher status than the self.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chou and Edge 2012 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gonzales and Hancock 2011 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Manago et al. 2008 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, preliminary findings suggest that negative social comparison on Facebook may be associated with lower life satisfaction (Krasnova et al. 2013), as well as increased rumination and depressive symptoms (Feinstein et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krasnova et al. 2013 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Feinstein et al. 2013 source

In the paper

“Modern technologies have transferred many social relations from the private to public sphere (Subrahmanyam and Greenfield 2008), creating an atmosphere of public commentary and performance online.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Subrahmanyam and Greenfield 2008 source

In the paper

“Interpersonal models of depression in adolescents emphasize the cyclical associations among social experiences, depressogenic interpersonal behaviors, and depressive symptoms (Hames et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hames et al. 2013 source

In the paper

“Interpersonal feedback-seeking and social comparison, which have often been conceptualized as depressogenic interpersonal behaviors (e.g., Borelli and Prinstein 2006), may actually be facilitated by modern technologies.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Borelli and Prinstein 2006 source

In the paper

“A recent narrative review reflects these mixed results, indicating associations between online technologies and positive outcomes such as self-esteem, social support, and self-disclosure, as well as negative outcomes, such as social isolation, depression, and cyber-bullying (Best et al. 2014).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Best et al. 2014 source

In the paper

“Other studies have indicated the opposite: that frequent technology use may be associated with positive adjustment, including increases in self-disclosure and friendship quality (Valkenburg and Peter 2009).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Valkenburg and Peter 2009 source

In the paper

“These behaviors are important to adolescent identity construction processes, as adolescents seek to ascertain normative standards of behavior and engage in reflected appraisal (i.e. evaluation of the self based on perceived opinions of others; Harter et al. 1996).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Harter et al. 1996

In the paper

“One critique of the original RSS is that it is very brief (four items), and that it lacks developmental sensitivity (Starr and Davila 2008).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Starr and Davila 2008 source

In the paper

“While positive feedback on SNS has been found to enhance adolescents’ self-esteem, negative feedback has been found to decrease self-esteem (Valkenburg et al. 2006).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Valkenburg et al. 2006 source

In the paper

“Thus, it may be that unpopular adolescents are not only more likely to post or send negative content, but also to receive negative feedback.”

In the paper

“The pattern of results was consistent in both treatments of outliers; thus, results for the analysis in which outliers were deleted are reported here.”

In the paper

“Another limitation of this study is its reliance on self-report measures, which are subject to recall and other biases.”

In the paper

“The mean SES for this sample was identical to the average household income for the town in which the data were collected, according to census data.”

In the paper

“The current sample yielded good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha 0.94).”

In the paper

“Sociometric nomination procedures are largely considered the most reliable and valid indices of adolescents’ popularity among peers (Coie et al. 1983).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Coie et al. 1983 source

In the paper

“Given that young people spend the majority of their time on SNS looking at peers’ profiles and photos, rather than posting or updating their own profiles (Pempek et al. 2009), adolescents may be especially likely to engage in technology-based SCFS and may be vulnerable to negative comparisons with their peers.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pempek et al. 2009 source

In the paper

“Of the original sample of 868, 90% of students participated (n=779).”

In the paper

“Chou and Edge (2012) suggest that frequent users of technology employ certain heuristics that lead them to believe that “life is not fair” and “others are happier and living better lives.””

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chou and Edge (2012) source

In the paper

“The original RSS has been shown to have good psychometric properties (Joiner and Metalsky 2001) and has been used to assess depressive symptoms in adolescent samples (e.g., Prinstein et al. 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Joiner and Metalsky 2001 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Prinstein et al. 2005 source

In the paper

“First, it may be that the online environment facilitates higher levels of SCFS.”

In the paper

“Second, adolescents engaging in technology-based SCFS may form distorted perceptions of their peers, leading them to engage in harmful upward comparisons, or to doubt the sincerity of positive feedback that is sought online, and experience decreases in mood or self-esteem.”

In the paper

“Third, it may be that depressive symptoms precede and predict technology-based SCFS.”

In the paper

“Interpersonal theories of depression similarly suggest that within offline social worlds, depressed and depression-prone individuals are more likely to engage in overall higher levels of social comparison (Gibbons and Buunk 1999) and feedback-seeking behaviors (Hames et al. 2013).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gibbons and Buunk 1999 source
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hames et al. 2013 source

In the paper

“Unfortunately, within a computer-mediated, hyperpersonal environment in which peers selectively portray the most positive aspects of their lives, however, these downward comparisons may not be possible. In an online world where users portray themselves in an ideal manner, depressed individuals may be stymied in their efforts to seek out negative information about others, potentially experiencing a”

In the paper

“In seeking out feedback from peers, unpopular adolescents may actually be garnering self-relevant information that is harmful to their self-esteem and related to increases in depressive symptoms.”

In the paper

“Some research suggests that depressed and dysthymic individuals may be motivated to seek out negative information about others (Wenzlaff and Beevers 1998).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wenzlaff and Beevers 1998 source

In the paper

“Prior work has indicated important differences between adolescent girls and boys that may be relevant to an online context, with girls more likely experience depressive symptoms as the result of reassurance-seeking behaviors offline (Prinstein et al. 2005).”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Prinstein et al. 2005 source

In the paper

“This indicates that technology-based SCFS may be associated with depressive symptoms for the majority of individuals, but with stronger associations for those lower in popularity.”

In the paper

“This sample closely matched the demographic makeup of the district from which participants were recruited.”

In the paper

“Thus, it may be that, when seeking feedback online, lower status adolescents perceive smaller audience sizes for their posted content, resulting in feelings of decreased peer support and overall life satisfaction.”

In the paper

“For example, according to the availability heuristic (Tversky and Kahneman 1973), young people who frequently engage with technology may more easily recall information encountered online when forming impressions of others.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tversky and Kahneman 1973 source

In the paper

“Alphabetization of the roster was reversed for a random half of the participants in order to control for order effects in participants’ selection of names.”

In the paper

“Attrition analyses indicated that excluded students were, on average, more likely to be male, t (775)=3.13, p=0.002, and African American, χ2(3)=24.77, p<0.001.”

In the paper

“In other words, the online context fosters idealized self-presentations and individuals are likely to make positive assumptions about others subsequent to viewing online content.”

In the paper

“Manago et al. (2012) posit that larger online networks and perceived audiences predict life satisfaction and perceived social support.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Manago et al. (2012) source

In the paper

“The Revised ERS scale showed good internal consistency as a unifactorial scale in this sample (Cronbach’s alpha 0.90).”

In the paper

“Adolescents’ reports of technology use frequency in the study are consistent with nationally representative statistics of over 2000 students, collected by the Kaiser Family Foundation (Rideout et al. 2010).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites Rideout et al. 2010

In the paper

“The hyperpersonal model of computer-mediated communication (CMC; Walther et al. 2011) suggests that certain components of technology-based interaction serve to intensify the process of identity construction through increased feedback and decision-making within these environments.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Walther et al. 2011 source

In the paper

“Furthermore, established interpersonal theories of depression show that the link between interpersonal stressors and depressive symptoms may be particularly strong for girls (Rudolph 2002); thus, insofar as technology-based SCFS present a source of interpersonal stress for girls, these behaviors are likely to be associated with depressive symptoms.”

In the paper

“Additionally, the use of census tract data provides only a rough estimate of families’ true SES; more sensitive measures of SES should be used in future studies.”

In the paper

“Although the study’s large and diverse sample provided the opportunity to examine effects across different ethnicities, it is possible that cell sizes were too small to examine potential interaction effects.”