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Cited by 713Impact of Technology on AdolescentsChild Development and Digital TechnologyChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Transformation of Adolescent Peer Relations in the Social Media Context: Part 1—A Theoretical Framework and Application to Dyadic Peer Relationships

Open access
Nesi, Jacqueline, Choukas-Bradley, Sophia, Prinstein, Mitchell J.·2018·Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review
DOI 10.1007/s10567-018-0261-xPMC PMC6435354
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Abstract

Investigators have long recognized that adolescents’ peer experiences provide a crucial context for the acquisition of developmental competencies, as well as potential risks for a range of adjustment difficulties. However, recent years have seen an exponential increase in adolescents’ adoption of social media tools, fundamentally reshaping the landscape of adolescent peer interactions. Although research has begun to examine social media use among adolescents, researchers have lacked a unifying framework for understanding the impact of social media on adolescents’ peer experiences. This paper represents Part 1 of a two-part theoretical review, in which we offer a transformation framework to integrate interdisciplinary social media scholarship and guide future work on social media use and peer relations from a theory-driven perspective. We draw on prior conceptualizations of social media as a distinct interpersonal context and apply this understanding to adolescents’ peer experiences, outlining features of social media with particular relevance to adolescent peer relations. We argue that social media transforms adolescent peer relationships in five key ways: by changing the frequency or immediacy of experiences, amplifying experiences and demands, altering the qualitative nature of interactions, facilitating new opportunities for compensatory behaviors, and creating entirely novel behaviors. We offer an illustration of the transformation framework applied to adolescents’ dyadic friendship processes (i.e., experiences typically occurring between two individuals), reviewing existing evidence and offering theoretical implications. Overall, the transformation framework represents a departure from the prevailing approaches of prior peer relations work and a new model for understanding peer relations in the social media context.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x

Cites

193 of 193 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingnone given

    Publicness can occur in group text messaging threads where one communicates simultaneously with groups of 10-20 friends or more.

    “publicness can also occur in such forums as group text messaging threads, where one can simultaneously communicate with groups of 10–20 friends or more”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Adolescents spend significantly more time with peers than children do.

    “As compared to children, adolescents spend significantly more time with peers, experience more frequent peer-based stressors, and exhibit heightened emotional reactivity to peer stress (Brown and Larson 2009; Rudolph 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brown and Larson 2009 source

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    • cites Rudolph 2014 source

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  • Premisecitation

    Adolescents show heightened emotional reactivity to peer stress compared with children.

    “As compared to children, adolescents spend significantly more time with peers, experience more frequent peer-based stressors, and exhibit heightened emotional reactivity to peer stress (Brown and Larson 2009; Rudolph 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brown and Larson 2009 source

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    • cites Rudolph 2014 source

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  • Interpretationnone given

    Social media incorporates aspects of a dyadic social system in which individuals interact directly with known others in their immediate network.

    “First, it incorporates aspects of a dyadic social system, in which individuals interact directly with others known in their immediate social network.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Social media may activate the biological systems responsible for adolescents' heightened sensitivity to social feedback and rewards.

    “Social media also may activate the biological systems that are responsible for adolescents’ heightened sensitivity to social feedback and rewards (Sherman et al. 2016)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sherman et al. 2016 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 58
  • May combine two claims. 44

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    Findingnone given

    Text-based communication offers fewer interpersonal cues than photograph-based communication, which offers some cues (facial expression) but not others (voice).

    “text-based communication offers fewer interpersonal cues (i.e., no facial expression, tone of voice, or gestures), while sending a photograph of one’s self to a friend may offer some cues (facial expression), but not others (voice).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Sending a text message requires far less effort than driving to a friend's house to talk, and messaging a stranger online requires less effort than going to a party to meet someone new.

    “The act of picking up one’s phone and sending a text message, for example, requires far less effort than driving to a friend’s house to talk, as does messaging a stranger online versus going to a party to meet someone new.”
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    Findingnone given

    Certain social media applications such as Instagram and Snapchat have built-in filter mechanisms that allow for easy or automatic application to photographs.

    “Certain social media applications, such as Instagram and Snapchat, have such “filter” mechanisms built in to allow for easy or automatic application to one’s photographs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Quantifiable indicators such as numbers of likes, retweets, views, shares, friends, and followers are commonplace within social media tools.

    “Quantifiable indicators are commonplace within social media tools—for example, many social networking sites display numbers of “likes,” “retweets,” “views,” or “shares.” Numbers of friends and followers are displayed across many sites as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    Content sent via Snapchat that ostensibly disappears can easily be captured and copied by peers through screenshots or photographs.

    “such content can easily be captured and copied by peers through screenshots or photographs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    Snapchat tracks the number of messages sent between each user and designates the individual with whom a user shares the most messages as the user's number one best friend.

    “Snapchat tracks the number of messages sent between each user and designates the individual with whom a user shares the most messages as his/her “number one best friend.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    On sites like Instagram and Pinterest, very few functionalities are provided apart from photograph and video displays.

    “for sites like Instagram and Pinterest, very few functionalities are provided apart from photograph and video displays”
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    Findingnone given

    Snapchat displays emojis next to usernames to indicate, for example, whether two individuals have the same number one best friend, or whether one sends more messages than are reciprocated.

    “The app displays various “emojis” next to individuals’ usernames to indicate, for example, whether two individuals have the same “number one best friend,” or whether one sends more messages than are reciprocated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    When users have sent messages to each other for consecutive days, a streak score appears next to the user's name to indicate the consecutive number of days.

    “when users have sent messages to each other for consecutive days, a “streak” score appears next to the user’s name to indicate the consecutive number of days.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    Each Snapchat user receives a score reflecting the number of posts they have sent and received.

    “Each user receives a Snapchat “score” reflecting the number of posts they have sent and received.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingnone given

    Quantifiability allows for counting numbers of text messages shared and the times at which those messages were sent.

    “In addition, quantifiability allows for the ability to count numbers of text messages shared and times at which those text messages were sent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    Social media displays times at which content was posted, allowing users to determine how long it took an individual to accrue a given number of likes or comments.

    “The quantifiability of social media can even be seen in displays of times at which certain content was posted, thus allowing users to determine the length of time that passed for an individual to accrue a given number of likes or comments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social media must be placed within an historical context.

    “Furthermore, social media must be placed within an historical context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Social media can be considered an environmental context external to the individual.

    “Certainly, social media may be considered an environmental context, one that is external to the individual; however, the specific system within which it is situated may be less clear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social media also rests within larger meso-, macro-, and exosystems.

    “Social media likely also rests, however, within larger meso-, macro-, and exosystems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social media transforms adolescents' dyadic friendship processes, including communication, relationship quality, friendship support, and problematic interpersonal behaviors.

    “we discuss the role of social media in transforming adolescents’ dyadic peer interactions—or those experiences traditionally occurring between two individuals—including communication processes, relationship quality, friendship support, and problematic interpersonal behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Features of social media exist on a continuum within any given social media tool.

    “we identify features of social media with particular relevance to adolescent peer relationships and suggest that these features exist on a continuum within any given social media tool.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Social media use is nearly ubiquitous among adolescents.

    “Social media use has become nearly ubiquitous among adolescents (Lenhart 2015a).”
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    • cites Lenhart 2015a

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    Premisecitation

    Computer-mediated communication channels provide fewer interpersonal, nonverbal cues and less synchronicity, affecting social interactions that rely on those features.

    ““cues-filtered-out” theories (Culnan and Markus 1987) suggest that computer-mediated communication channels provide fewer interpersonal, nonverbal “cues” and synchronicity, thus impacting social interactions that typically rely on those communicative features.”
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    • cites Culnan and Markus 1987

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    Premisecitation

    On certain sites like Snapchat, adolescents may exchange so many photographs each day that scholars have suggested a newly found legitimacy for photographic communication.

    “On certain sites, like Snapchat, adolescents may exchange so many photographs each day that scholars have suggested a newly found legitimacy for “photographic communication,” or the use of self-photographs to convey expression, tone, or emotions within conversation (Waddell 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Waddell 2016 source

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    Premisecitation

    Social media allows adolescents to engage in selective self-presentation, receive peer feedback, and compare themselves with peers' self-presentations.

    “Furthermore, social media allows adolescents to engage in selective self-presentation, posting certain photographs and text that reflect their burgeoning identities, gaining feedback from their peers on such presentations, and engaging in social comparison with the self-presentations of their peers (Subrahmanyam and Šmahel 2011; Valkenburg and Peter 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Subrahmanyam and Šmahel 2011 source

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    • cites Valkenburg and Peter 2011 source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents' peer interactions, friendships, and status have profound impacts on development and well-being.

    “Over many decades, substantial research has documented the profound impacts of peer interactions, friendships, and status for adolescent development and well-being (Choukas-Bradley and Prinstein 2014; Rubin et al. 2015; Steinberg and Morris 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Choukas-Bradley and Prinstein 2014

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    • cites Rubin et al. 2015 source

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    • cites Steinberg and Morris 2001

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents are acutely attuned to their own and their peers' physical appearance and tend to engage in high levels of appearance-based social comparison.

    “adolescents are acutely attuned to their own and their peers’ physical appearance and tend to engage in high levels of appearance-based social comparison (de Vries et al. 2016).”
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    • cites de Vries et al. 2016 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    It is increasingly difficult to characterize social media's overall influence as either harmful or helpful.

    “it becomes increasingly difficult to characterize social media’s overall influence as either “harmful” or “helpful.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    Peer interactions become increasingly desired, frequent, and central to one's sense of self as youth reach adolescence.

    “This may be especially appealing as youth reach adolescence, when peer interactions become increasingly desired, frequent, and central to one’s sense of self (Hartup 1996).”
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    • cites Hartup 1996

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Communication and social support processes may be perceived as less rich, and victimization experienced as more harsh, in online environments due to cue absence and asynchronicity.

    “communication and social support processes may be perceived as less “rich,” and victimization experienced as more harsh, within the online environments due to cue absence and asynchronicity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The domain of peer victimization may be transformed through opportunities to digitally alter and spread privately shared content, and peer status may be transformed through novel opportunities to accumulate likes and followers.

    “the domain of peer victimization may be transformed through opportunities to digitally alter and spread privately shared content, and peer status may be transformed through novel opportunities to accumulate “likes” and “followers.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The availability of a social media tool, combined with publicness, allows for scalability, the potential for content to become highly visible through forwarding.

    “Combined with publicness, the availability of a given social media tool allows for “scalability,” or the potential for content to become highly visible, for example, through forwarding of messages or videos that quickly “go viral” (boyd 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites boyd 2010

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The degree to which a given social media tool exhibits each of the seven features varies considerably across tools, platforms, and functionalities.

    “The degree to which a given social media tool exhibits each feature varies considerably across tools, including different platforms (e.g., Facebook, Snapchat) and their various potential functionalities (e.g., posting a public photograph, sending a private message).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Visualness has not been highlighted in prior theoretical frameworks.

    “A second social media feature that has not been highlighted in prior theoretical frameworks is visualness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Adolescents' social lives are increasingly embedded in the social media context.

    “Adolescents’ social lives are increasingly embedded in this context, and the transformation framework aims to integrate prior work and guide future investigations to better understand this phenomenon.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Permanence is a broad, encompassing feature of social media that is a necessary condition for searchability, retrievability, replicability, reprocessability, and verifiability.

    “we consider permanence to be a broad, encompassing feature of social media that is a necessary condition for these important processes described in prior discussions of social media”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is likely to be considerable overlap within the broad categories of transformation.

    “There is likely to be considerable overlap within these broad categories of transformation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Current social media tools often encourage connections with known others, with the degree of connection with offline friends varying between sites.

    “current social media tools often encourage connections with known others, with the degree of connection with offline friends varying between sites (Boyd and Ellison 2008; Ellison and Boyd 2013)”
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    • cites Boyd and Ellison 2008

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    • cites Ellison and Boyd 2013

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents are highly aware of and influenced by quantifiable social media metrics.

    “Preliminary studies suggest that adolescents are highly aware of and influenced by these quantifiable metrics (Chua and Chang 2016; Sherman et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chua and Chang 2016

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    • cites Sherman et al. 2016 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Asynchronicity allows adolescents to participate in multiple conversations with peers simultaneously and to engage in careful, selective self-presentation.

    “Due to asynchronicity, adolescents may participate in multiple conversations with peers simultaneously and engage in careful, selective self-presentation within messages and photographs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Social media tends to exhibit higher levels of each of the seven identified features than traditional face-to-face contexts.

    “We suggest that, overall, social media tends to show higher levels of each of these features compared to traditional face-to-face contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Each of the seven features can be considered on a continuum for a given social media tool, with tools potentially high on some features and low on others.

    “We thus propose that each feature can be considered on a continuum for a given social media tool, with each specific social media tool potentially having high levels of some of these features and low levels of others (see Fig. 2).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Communication via social media often precludes interpersonal cues such as vocal tone, physical touch, gestures, and facial expression, and reduces the number of ways information can be expressed.

    “The lack of physical presence required of communication via social media often precludes interpersonal cues such as vocal tone, physical touch, gestures, and facial expression, and reduces the number of ways that information can be expressed, or “symbol sets” (Dennis et al. 2008).”
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    • cites Dennis et al. 2008 source

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    Premisecitation

    Adolescents show increased activity in reward-related brain regions and greater risk-taking when in the presence of peers.

    “In experimental work, adolescents have shown increased activity in reward-related brain regions, and subsequently greater risk-taking, when in the presence of peers (Chein et al. 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chein et al. 2011 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Adolescents may be more likely than others to post or share content impulsively or without considering the long-term consequences of permanently available content.

    “This may have particular relevance for adolescents, who may be more likely to post or share content impulsively or without consideration of the long-term consequences of permanently available content.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The asynchronicity and cue absence of social media may transform friendship processes by altering the qualitative nature of communication processes and the quality of relationships and social support.

    “The asynchronicity and cue absence of the social media environment may transform friendship processes by altering the qualitative nature of specific communication processes (e.g., interpretation of information, conflict resolution, problem solving), as well as the quality of relationships and social support more generally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The permanent accessibility of content allows for searchability, retrievability, and replicability of that content.

    “the permanent accessibility of content allows for the abilities to search for (“searchability”; boyd 2010), retrieve (“retrievability”; Peter and Valkenburg 2013), and replicate (“replicability”; boyd 2010) that content.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites boyd 2010

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    • cites Peter and Valkenburg 2013

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    Premisecitation

    The concept of disembodied users, or adolescents' sense that certain communication cues are missing, has been proposed.

    “The concept of “disembodied users,” or adolescents’ sense that certain communication cues are missing, has also been proposed (Subrahmanyam and Šmahel 2011).”
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    • cites Subrahmanyam and Šmahel 2011 source

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Studies comparing online and offline experiences may show discriminant associations between each experience and putative predictors and outcomes, or between corresponding online and offline behaviors.

    “Such studies, for example, may show discriminant associations between each of these experiences and putative predictors and outcomes, or between corresponding online and offline behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from studies of adults and college students can provide preliminary evidence about processes that occur in adolescence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The speed with which adolescents can access and share content is a consequence of availability, not a feature in itself.

    “We thus consider the speed with which adolescents can access and share content to be a consequence of availability, rather than a feature in itself.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As young people enter adolescence, changes across cognitive, biological, and social domains allow for increased intimacy, reciprocity, and support within friendships, with implications for adjustment through the lifespan.

    “As young people enter adolescence, changes across cognitive, biological, and social domains allow for increased intimacy, reciprocity, and support within friendships, with important implications for adjustment through the lifespan (Berndt 1982).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berndt 1982

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    • Rests on an assumption: The offline peer relations literature provides the appropriate baseline constructs against which social media transformations can be identified.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Media synchronicity theory proposes that a medium's capabilities should be matched to the needs of a social situation to optimize communication performance.

    “media synchronicity theory (Dennis et al. 2008) has suggested that the capabilities of a given media platform (e.g., transmission velocity, rehearsability) should be matched to the needs of a social situation in order to optimize communication performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dennis et al. 2008 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Nearly limitless possibilities exist for the ways in which adolescents can use social media tools.

    “as nearly limitless possibilities exist for the ways in which adolescents can use social media tools”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Keipi and Oksanen (2014) suggest a continuum of anonymity ranging from full anonymity to face-to-face interaction, with pseudonymity and visual anonymity in between.

    “Keipi and Oksanen (2014) suggest a continuum of anonymity, ranging from full anonymity to face-to-face interaction, with pseudonymity (e.g., interaction through avatars) and visual anonymity (interactions without physical characteristics or cues) falling in between.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keipi and Oksanen (2014) source

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    Premisecitation

    Friendships provide an important developmental context for adolescents' social and emotional growth.

    “Friendships provide an important developmental context for adolescents’ social and emotional growth (Newcomb and Bagwell 1995).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Newcomb and Bagwell 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The offline peer relations literature provides the appropriate baseline constructs against which social media transformations can be identified.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Permanence results in opportunities to reexamine previously shared content and to check or verify information.

    “permanence results in opportunities to reexamine previously shared content (“reprocessability”; Dennis et al. 2008), as well as to check or verify information (“verifiability”; McFarland and Ployhart 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dennis et al. 2008 source

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    • cites McFarland and Ployhart 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The displacement hypothesis proposed that Internet use would degrade offline relationship quality because high-quality offline relationships would be replaced by low-quality online interactions.

    “the displacement hypothesis (Kraut et al. 1998) was first proposed in the early days of the Internet. This hypothesis suggested that the quality of individuals’ offline relationships would suffer as a result of Internet use because high-quality offline relationships would be replaced with time spent in low-quality online interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kraut et al. 1998 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The features of social media may create opportunities for traditionally dyadic behaviors to occur within larger group settings.

    “the features of social media may create opportunities for traditionally “dyadic” behaviors to occur within larger group settings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Many of the ways in which social media may transform peer experiences are likely to vary based on adolescents' age.

    “It should be noted that many of the ways in which social media may transform peer experiences are likely to vary based on adolescents’ age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from studies of adults and college students can provide preliminary evidence about processes that occur in adolescence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The effects of quantifiable status indicators such as likes on the experience of friendship may differ greatly from early to late adolescence or early adulthood.

    “The effects of quantifiable status indicators (e.g., “likes”) on the experience of friendship, for example, may differ greatly from early to late adolescence or early adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from studies of adults and college students can provide preliminary evidence about processes that occur in adolescence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A clear pattern of developmental differences in social media's effect on friendships will likely emerge once more research has accumulated.

    “It is likely that a clear pattern of developmental differences in social media’s effect on friendships will emerge once more research has accumulated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Findings from studies of adults and college students can provide preliminary evidence about processes that occur in adolescence.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Scholars have suggested that the quantifiable nature of social media interactions may significantly impact adolescents' peer experiences online.

    “Scholars have begun to suggest that the “quantifiable” nature of social media interactions may have a significant impact on adolescents’ peer experiences online (Sherman et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sherman et al. 2016 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Valkenburg and Peter (2011) differentiate between source anonymity, in which the communicator is entirely unknown, and audiovisual anonymity, in which visual or auditory cues may be lacking or reduced.

    “Valkenburg and Peter (2011), for example, differentiating between “source anonymity,” in which the communicator is entirely unknown, and “audiovisual anonymity,” in which visual or auditory cues may be lacking or reduced.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valkenburg and Peter (2011) source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The stimulation hypothesis proposes that adolescents' friendship quality is enhanced because social media allows more time communicating with existing friends.

    “a stimulation hypothesis has been proposed, with evidence accumulating to suggest that adolescents’ friendship quality will be enhanced as the availability of social media allows for more time spent communicating with existing friends (Valkenburg and Peter 2007b, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Valkenburg and Peter 2007b, 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Adolescents primarily use social media to communicate with existing friends.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Asynchronicity has long been considered an important aspect of cues-filtered-out approaches to media-based communication and has been frequently highlighted in the psychology and media effects literature.

    “The asynchronicity, or time lapse between aspects of a conversation, has long been considered an important aspect of cues-filtered-out approaches to media-based communication (Culnan and Markus 1987) and has been frequently highlighted within the psychology and media effects literature (McFarland and Ployhart 2015; Valkenburg and Peter 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Culnan and Markus 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McFarland and Ployhart 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Valkenburg and Peter 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Social media may transform dyadic friendship processes by changing qualitative experiences, increasing support frequency and immediacy, creating compensatory and online-exclusive opportunities, and amplifying communication demands.

    “The literature suggests that these processes may be transformed in a number of ways including: changing the qualitative nature of friendship experiences to be less rich or, alternatively, more comfortable; increasing the frequency and immediacy of support provision; creating new opportunities for compensatory friendship behaviors and online exclusive friendships, as well as for novel “relationship”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The features of social media (cue absence, asynchronicity, publicness, permanence, availability) are the primary features that transform peer relations.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Scholars have described the potential for cue management online, or adolescents' ability to choose which cues are presented.

    “scholars have described the potential for “cue management” online, or adolescents’ ability to choose which cues (visual, textual, auditory, video) are presented (Peter and Valkenburg 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peter and Valkenburg 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The amplification of experiences may be caused by increasing frequency of behaviors or opportunities for new behaviors, and opportunities for new behaviors may result in changes in the qualitative nature of experiences.

    “in many cases, the amplification of experiences may be caused by increasing frequency of behaviors or opportunities for new behaviors; similarly, opportunities for new behaviors may result in changes in the qualitative nature of experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Transformed peer experiences may be alternatively beneficial, detrimental, both, or neither to adolescents.

    “These transformed peer experiences, then, may be alternatively beneficial, detrimental, both, or neither to adolescents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Xu and colleagues (2016) reported that media multitasking reduced social success (close friends and connectedness) in synchronous communication but not in asynchronous communication.

    “For example, Xu et al. (2016) found that media multitasking negatively impacted social success (i.e., number of close friends and feelings of connectedness) during synchronous communication (face-to-face conversations, phone conversations, and video chat), but not during asynchronous communication (e-mail and text messaging).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Xu et al. 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The visual nature of social media may enable these behaviors in new nonverbal forms, such as posting photos to seek reassurance, and may increase appearance-based reassurance-seeking and validation.

    “Finally, the visualness of social media may allow these behaviors to occur in novel, nonverbal ways—for example, posting frequent photographs with the expectation of friends’ comments as a means of reassurance-seeking—and this visualness may heighten the focus on appearance-based reassurance-seeking and validation (Perloff 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Perloff 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These processes may be amplified among younger adolescents, for whom the social self-concept is less well developed, potentially creating more uncertainty within peer relationships.

    “In addition, these processes may be amplified among younger adolescents, for whom the social self-concept is less well developed (Byrne and Shavelson 1996), thus potentially creating more uncertainty within peer relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Byrne and Shavelson 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Experiences of overdependence and mobile entrapment from social media may occur within adolescents' friendships as well, likely exacerbated by availability, publicness, and permanence.

    “These experiences, which are likely exacerbated due to the availability, publicness, and permanence of social media, may occur within adolescents’ friendships as well.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Similar processes of lower interpersonal competence may occur within adolescents' non-romantic friendships.

    “Although this study examined communication within romantic relationships specifically, one might expect similar processes to occur within adolescents’ non-romantic friendships, as well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A focus group study with college students indicated that relationship displays are a key part of social media use, serving self-image enhancement and public proof of friendships.

    “Although research directly examining this phenomenon is limited, one focus group study with college students suggests that “relationship displays” are a critical aspect of social media use, with such displays serving a variety of functions, including enhancement of self-image (i.e., by showcasing connections with others), as well as providing public “proof” of associations with friends (Manago et”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Manago et al. 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Cue absence and asynchronicity may impact adolescents' sense of comfort in online communication.

    “these features also may impact adolescents’ sense of comfort in online communication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Social media's publicness allows adolescents to access a wide network of peers, and its availability ensures peers may be available at almost any time from any location.

    “social media’s publicness allows adolescents to access a wide network of peers, with social media’s availability ensuring that peers may be available at almost any time of day, from any location.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Social media creates a new experience: public, quantifiable lists of top or best friends, which can foster jealousy and drama.

    “One new experience created by social media is the quantifiable, public categorization of relationships into “top friends” or “best friends” lists, which may create the potential for jealousy and “drama” (Marwick and Boyd 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marwick and Boyd 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a qualitative Snapchat study, adolescents said they might feel jealous if not at the top of a romantic partner's best friends list.

    “For example, in a qualitative study describing adolescents’ use of the social media app Snapchat, young people noted that they may feel jealous if they are not at the top of their romantic partner’s “best friends list,” i.e., the top three friends with whom a user exchanges “snaps” (Vaterlaus et al. 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vaterlaus et al. 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Online support-seeking may represent a more maladaptive, less active coping strategy.

    “This may indicate that online support-seeking represents a more maladaptive, less active coping strategy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Media tools with greater cue absence may result in less effective conflict resolution in adolescent friendships.

    “Applying these results to adolescent friendships, we might expect media tools with greater cue absence to result in less effective conflict resolution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Having friends whom one has not met in person is a phenomenon specific to the social media context, facilitated by social media features.

    “The experience of having friends whom an individual has not met in-person is clearly a phenomenon specific to the social media context, facilitated by social media’s features.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Longitudinal studies in this area do not control for offline behavior, which precludes conclusions about the unique role of social media communication in friendship quality and initiation.

    “It should be noted, however, that these longitudinal studies do not control for offline behavior, precluding conclusions regarding the unique role of social media communication in contributing to friendship quality and initiation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The public nature of social media may require adolescents to prove or display their friendships to peers, and quantifiable metrics amplify this expectation.

    “In addition, the public nature of social media tools may create the need for adolescents to “prove” or “display” their friendships to others in the peer network—with this expectation amplified by the quantifiability of social media metrics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These interpersonal behaviors may be transformed on social media in several ways, including intensified experiences and increased frequency and immediacy.

    “There are a number of ways in which these interpersonal behaviors may be transformed in the context of social media, including by amplifying the intensity of these experiences, as well as increasing their frequency and immediacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Availability, publicness, and permanence of social media may increase the frequency and immediacy of receiving social support, which may enhance friendship quality.

    “The availability, publicness, and permanence of social media also may increase the frequency and immediacy of receiving social support, which may enhance friendship quality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Co-rumination is excessive discussion of problems and focus on negative feelings in a dyadic relationship, and offline co-rumination is associated with greater internalizing symptoms.

    “Co-rumination refers to an excessive discussion of problems and focus on negative feelings occurring within a dyadic relationship and, when examined in offline contexts, has shown associations with greater internalizing symptoms (Rose 2002).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rose 2002 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A comprehensive understanding of adolescent development now requires considering social media's role.

    “It has become clear that any comprehensive understanding of adolescent development requires a consideration of the role of social media.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One study suggests co-rumination may be positively associated with text messaging and social networking site use, possibly indicating social media is a convenient vehicle for co-rumination.

    “One study suggests that co-rumination may be concurrently positively associated with frequency of text messaging and social networking site use, perhaps indicating that social media may provide a convenient vehicle through which young people can engage in co-rumination (Davila et al. 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Davila et al. 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The positive association between cell phone co-rumination and face-to-face co-rumination was moderate, suggesting they are related but distinct constructs.

    “Furthermore, the positive association between co-rumination via cell phone and co-rumination in face-to-face settings was moderate, indicating that these are related but distinct constructs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Murdock et al. 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The unique features of social media, such as publicness and quantifiability, likely require a fundamental shift in understanding group-based peer processes and behavior.

    “In particular, it is likely that the unique features of the social media environment, such as publicness and quantifiability, necessitate a fundamental shift in our understanding of group-based peer processes and behavior.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Adolescents' peer relationships take various forms-dyadic, cliques, larger networks-and social media offers unique opportunities for each, transforming them differently.

    “Adolescents’ peer relationships may take on a number of forms—from dyadic relationships, to cliques, to larger social networks—and social media offers unique opportunities for each to occur, transforming them in different ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The cue absence of social media may make adolescents more comfortable disclosing distress, potentially amplifying co-rumination.

    “In addition, as previously discussed, the cue absence inherent to social media may make adolescents more comfortable disclosing feelings of distress, perhaps amplifying the process of co-rumination.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The paper suggests that social media may transform the frequency and immediacy of contact and support in friendships, alter communication quality, amplify communication demands, and create opportunities for online exclusive friendships.

    “Specifically, we suggest that social media may transform the frequency and immediacy of contact and support within friendships, alter the quality of communication processes, amplify communication demands, and create opportunities for online exclusive friendships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
90 of 90

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No comprehensive or unifying framework exists for understanding how social media transforms traditional adolescent peer relations constructs.

    “research on adolescent peer relationships has lacked a unifying framework for understanding the mechanisms by which social media may impact traditional peer relations constructs.”
    “no comprehensive framework has yet been offered for understanding the ways in which traditional adolescent peer relations constructs are transformed in the context of social media.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The features of social media (the channel or medium) can be analytically separated from the messages and receivers of communication, and this separation is useful for understanding social media's impact on peer relations.

    “our goal is to present features of social media that characterize the “channel” or “medium” of social media itself, rather than the sources, messages, or receivers of communications via social media.”
    “we consider these outcomes to be separate from the features of the media itself.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from studies of adults and college students can provide preliminary evidence about processes that occur in adolescence.

    “in many cases, we draw on studies of adults or college students.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The offline peer relations literature provides the appropriate baseline constructs against which social media transformations can be identified.

    “we offer a model for understanding the ways in which the features of social media reshape traditional peer relations constructs, such as peer status, peer influence, friendship, and peer victimization.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The features of social media are the primary drivers of the transformation of peer experiences, rather than user characteristics or content.

    “We propose that this distinct context transforms adolescents’ peer experiences in important ways.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents primarily use social media to communicate with existing friends.

    “Although adolescents primarily use social media to communicate with existing friends, evidence suggests that many adolescents do develop “online exclusive” relationships”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The features of social media (cue absence, asynchronicity, publicness, permanence, availability) are the primary features that transform peer relations.

    “The asynchronicity and cue absence of the social media environment may transform friendship processes”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Adolescents increasingly use social media while engaged in other conversations.

    “This is problematic, given adolescents’ increasing tendency to engage with social media while engaged in other conversations; in fact, a study of college students found that 93.1% of young people had used text messaging while speaking to someone else in-person (Harrison and Gilmore 2012).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from adult and college student studies about social media and relationships can be generalized to adolescents.

    “Experimental studies with adults have found that the mere presence of a mobile phone in the room during a conversation can result in lower feelings of relationship quality, particularly when the conversation is about a meaningful topic (Przybylski and Weinstein 2013)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The seven identified features of social media are the most relevant for understanding adolescent peer relations.

    “It identifies seven unique features with particular relevance to adolescent peer relations processes, which differentiate social media from traditional, in-person contexts.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Social media is a primary way adolescents engage with peers.

    “However, as adolescents increasingly turn to social media as a primary means of engaging with peers, the peer relations field has lacked a unifying framework through which to examine the implications of this phenomenon.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The peer relations field lacks a unifying framework for examining social media's implications.

    “However, as adolescents increasingly turn to social media as a primary means of engaging with peers, the peer relations field has lacked a unifying framework through which to examine the implications of this phenomenon.”
12 of 12

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The social media context transforms adolescents' peer experiences.

    “Nesi et al. (2018a, 2018b) challenged preconceptions that online interactions mirror offline ones and proposed that “the social media context transforms adolescents’ peer experiences” (Nesi et al., 2018a, p. 268).”

    From Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory. (2023) · cites this paper as Nesi et al., 2018a

  • Availability is a key affordance for proximal processes in virtual microsystems because it allows connection with others who may otherwise be unavailable.

    “Availability is a key affordance when considering proximal processes occurring in virtual microsystems, as it allows people to connect with others who may otherwise be unavailable to them (boyd, 2010; Nesi et al., 2018a).”

    From Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory. (2023) · cites this paper as Nesi et al., 2018a

  • Asynchronicity is more pronounced in virtual microsystems than in physical microsystems, though its degree varies by digital platform.

    “Nonetheless, this feature is more pronounced in virtual microsystems, although the degree of asychnronicity varies depending on the digital platform (Nesi et al., 2018a).”

    From Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory. (2023) · cites this paper as Nesi et al., 2018a

  • The transformation framework identifies key features and affordances of social media platforms that alter peer interactions and relationships in adolescence.

    “Their “transformation framework” identifies key features and affordances of social media platforms that alter peer interactions and relationships in adolescence.”

    From Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory. (2023) · cites this paper as Nesi et al., 2018a

  • In virtual microsystems, group interactions are not limited to a geographical location and individuals can communicate with a much wider audience.

    “In virtual microsystems, group interactions are not limited to a geographical location and individuals can communicate and interact with a much wider audience (Nesi et al., 2018a).”

    From Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory. (2023) · cites this paper as Nesi et al., 2018a

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 195 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Moreno, M., & Kota, R. (2013). Social media. In V. C. Strasburger, B. Wilson, & A. B. Jordan (Eds.), Children, adolescents, and the media (3rd ed.). Sage. Retrieved from https://nls.ldls.org.uk/welcome.html?ark:/81055/vdc_100025421490.0x000001 .
  2. Walther, J. B. (2011). Theories of computer-mediated communication and interpersonal relations. In M. L. Knapp & J. A. Daly (Eds.), The handbook of interpersonal communication (4th ed., pp. 443–479). Washington, DC: Sage.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Nesi, J., Choukas-Bradley, S., & Prinstein, M. J.
Affiliations
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
Corresponding author
Nesi, Jacqueline
ORCID
Venue
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2018-04-07
Volume
21
Issue
3
Pages
267-294
ISSN
  • 1096-4037 (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-2827
DOI
10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x
PMC
PMC6435354
OpenAlex
W2795982475
Semantic Scholar
d2abc643cce06d3ba0050307351dc6d1e606d332
Cited by
712
References
195
Citations by year
2026: 157 · 2025: 110 · 2024: 110 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 1
FWCI
14.33
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (DGE-1144081)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01-MH85505)
  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01-HD055342)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords
social media use, transformation framework, peer relationships, interpersonal context, compensatory behavior, adolescent development, peer adjustment
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Peer Group, Friends, Social Media

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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