Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptoms Among Children Enrolled in the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED)
Open accessAbstract
This study examined the phenotypic profiles of children aged 30-68 months in the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED). Children classified as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), developmental delay (DD) with ASD symptoms, DD without ASD symptoms, and population comparison (POP) differed significantly from each other on cognitive, adaptive, behavioral, and social functioning and the presence of parent-reported conditions. Children with ASD and DD with ASD symptoms had mild to severe ASD risk on several measures compared to children with other DD and POP who had little ASD risk across measures. We conclude that children in SEED have varying degrees of ASD impairment and associated deficits. SEED thus provides a valuable sample to explore ASD phenotypes and inform risk factor analyses.
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Previous SEED analyses showed that children termed 'DD with ASD symptoms' had a phenotypic profile more similar to children with ASD than to children with other developmental disorders.
“Previous SEED analyses have shown that children termed “DD with ASD symptoms” and used in these analyses have a phenotypic profile more similar to children with ASD than children with other DD [32].”
From DSM-5 criteria for autism spectrum disorder maximizes diagnostic sensitivity and specificity in preschool children (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
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BackgroundSoke, G. N., Rosenberg, S. A., Rosenberg, C. R., Vasa, R. A., Lee, L.-C., & DiGuiseppi, C. G. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3490-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationSchieve, L. A., Tian, L. H., Dowling, N. F., Croen, L., Hoover-Fong, J. E., Alexander, A. A., & Shapira, S. K. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3495-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationAvlund, S. H., Thomsen, P. H., Schendel, D., Jørgensen, M., & Clausen, L. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04555-8 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationMathée‐Scott, J., Larson, C., Venker, C. E., Pomper, R., Edwards, J., Saffran, J. R., & Weismer, S. E. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05321-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Oppenheim, D., Koren‐Karie, N., Slonim, M., Mottes‐Peleg, M., Sher‐Censor, E., Dolev, S., & Yirmiya, N. (2024) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2024.2326416 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“The SCQ items are scored as present (1) or absent (0) and summed, with the cut-off for ASD for young children ≥ 11 (Wiggins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundIao, L., Yu, W.-H., & Wu, C. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101477 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Bong, G., Kim, S. Y., Song, D., Kim, J., Hong, Y., Yoon, N., SunWoo, H.-J., Jang, J. Y., Oh, M., Kim, J. M., et al. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2510 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Because social interactional behavior becomes more complex as a child develops, gathering information from a small set of risk behaviors may not be sufficient to differentiate ASD from DD, who tend to share similar behavioral characteristics during the young age (Wiggins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundRahaman, M. A., Lopa, M., Uddin, K. M. F., Baqui, M. A., Keya, S. P., Faruk, M. O., Sarker, S., Basiruzzaman, M., Islam, M., Albanna, A., et al. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04703-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mobile Application to identify and recognize emotions for children with autism: A systematic review
Al-Saadi, A., & Al‐Thani, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/frcha.2023.1118665 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“, study with no participants were excluded); and (4) the study should be written in English language (i.”
BackgroundMathée‐Scott, J., & Weismer, S. E. (2022) · Autism & Developmental Language Impairments · doi:10.1177/23969415221136740 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…child understands, then it will be imperative for future research to better understand the interplay between parent–child reading and parent perceptions of receptive vocabulary in autistic children, given that they are likely to have language delays (Delehanty et al., 2018; Wiggins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundDiagnosis and treatment of ASD in women in secure and forensic hospitals
Markham, S. (2018) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-09-2018-0027 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Rubenstein, E., Croen, L., Lee, L.-C., Moody, E. J., Schieve, L. A., Soke, G. N., Thomas, K. C., Wiggins, L. D., & Daniels, J. L. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101410 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“thus would not have been eligible for ASD-related services prior to study entry (Wiggins et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEmotional Intelligence in Autistic Adults: A Review with Considerations for Employers
Howes, S. S. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15097252 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Schieve, L. A., & Shapira, S. K. (2018) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx369 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“For example, a recent analysis from a US population-based case-control study found that 17% of preschool-aged children who had received a previous ASD diagnosis from a community health-care provider did not meet the study’s ASD case criteria based on in-person developmental assessments using standardized instruments c…”
Self-citationTian, L. H., Wiggins, L. D., Schieve, L. A., Yeargin‐Allsopp, M., Dietz, P. M., Aylsworth, A. S., Elias, E. R., Hoover-Fong, J. E., Meeks, N. J. L., Souders, M. C., et al. (2020) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2314 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…of functioning; co-occurring behavioral, developmental, and medical conditions; and responses to medical and behavioral interventions [Miles & Hillman, 2000; Levy et al., 2010; Angkustsiri et al., 2011;Close, Lee, Kaufmann,& Zimmerman, 2012; APA, 2013; Wiggins et al., 2015a; Wiggins et al., 2017].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationAljameel, S. S., O’Shea, J. D., Crockett, K. A., & Latham, A. (2017) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56991-8_63 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Wiggins, L. D., Overwyk, K. J., Daniels, J. L., Barger, B. D., Crain, H. M., Grzadzinski, R., Moody, E. J., Reynolds, A., Reyes, N., Rosenberg, C. R., et al. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3074 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“See Schendel et al. (2012) and Wiggins et al. (2015) for more details on SEED methods and final classification procedures.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationPazol, K., Tian, L. H., DiGuiseppi, C. G., Durkin, M. S., Fallin, M. D., Moody, E. J., Nadler, C. B., Powell, P. S., Reyes, N., Robinson, B., et al. (2023) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001227 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“A detailed description of SEED, including eligibility criteria, enrollment methods, and data collection can be found in the study of Schendel et al. 19 Study criteria for ASD case classification using the Autism Diagnostic Interview Revised 20 and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule 21 can be found in the study…”
BackgroundSelf-citationReyes, N., Soke, G. N., Wiggins, L., Barger, B., Moody, E. J., Rosenberg, C., Schieve, L., Reaven, J., Reynolds, A., & Hepburn, S. (2023) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-023-09929-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Also, young children with ASD typically show more internalizing problems regardless of regression status, and these problems tend to be stable over time (Vallencourt et al., 2017 ; Wiggins et al., 2015).”
Self-citationNasledov, A., Александрович, М. С., Tkacheva, L. O., & Goncharov, V. A. (2020) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics10090646 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“A temporary delay in the acquisition of cognitive, sensory and motor skills can be caused by various neurodevelopmental disorders [1], and quite often is burdened by autistic-like symptoms [2].”
BackgroundWiggins, L. D., Tian, L. H., Tinker, S. C., Yeargin‐Allsopp, M., DiGuiseppi, C. G., Nadler, C. B., Powell, P. S., Moody, E. J., Durkin, M. S., Fallin, M. D., et al. (2023) · JAACAP Open · doi:10.1016/j.jaacop.2023.08.007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“15,16 Children with ASD tend to have more behavior problems, daily living skill de fi cits, and early learning de fi - cits than children with other developmental problems, 17 which could in fl uence their response to telehealth.”
Self-citationJohnson, S. L., Moody, E. J., Kral, T. V. E., Holst, B., Dahl, E., Withrow, N. A., Levy, S. E., Reynolds, A., & Rosenberg, C. R. (2025) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.02.017 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationTian, L. H., Barger, B. D., Pazol, K., Schieve, L. A., Bertrand, J., DiGuiseppi, C. G., Summers, A. D., Dunajcik, A., England, L. J., Crume, T., et al. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70025 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationFields, V. L., Tian, L. H., Wiggins, L. D., Soke, G. N., Overwyk, K. J., Moody, E. J., Reyes, N., Shapira, S. K., & Schieve, L. A. (2024) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-024-06464-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Our finding of increased prevalence of diagnosed SID in older siblings of children with ASD supports previous results from several large, population-based samples that have indicated a high prevalence of sensory features in children with ASD (Wiggins et al., 2015a, 2022; Kirby et al., 2022).”
Self-citationDiGuiseppi, C. G., Crume, T., Holst, B., Aiona, K., Dyke, J. V., Croen, L., Daniels, J. L., Friedman, S., Sabourin, K. R., Schieve, L. A., et al. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3284 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Children meeting cutoff scores on these instruments were classified as having ASD (Schendel et al., 2012; Wiggins, Reynolds, et al., 2015), while those evaluated for possible ASD who did not meet study cutoff scores were classified as having a developmental disorder (DD) with ASD symptoms.”
InfluentialSelf-citationDichter, G., Grosser, K. F., Cummings, K., Bradley, C. B., Garcia, T. P., Tapia, A., Pretzel, R., Nadler, C., Moody, E., Barger, B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-07107-0
“Classification into the final study groups was based on a comprehensive in-person evaluation (Wiggins, Reynolds, et al., 2015).”
Self-citationDiGuiseppi, C. G., Sabourin, K. R., Levy, S. E., Soke, G. N., Lee, L.-C., Wiggins, L. D., & Schieve, L. A. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101413
Self-citationAl-Saadi, A., & Al‐Thani, D. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.44563
Harris, S. T., Schieve, L. A., Drews‐Botsch, C., DiGuiseppi, C. G., Tian, L. H., Soke, G. N., Bradley, C., & Windham, G. C. (2024) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-023-03877-0
“Final ASD case classification was based on a SEED-derived algo - rithm of ADOS and ADI-R scores (Wiggins et al., 2015a, b).”
Self-citationPowell, P. S., Gonzalez, M. G., Pazol, K., Reyes, N., Nadler, C. B., & Wiggins, L. D. (2024) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104879
Self-citationDaily Living Skill Profiles in Adolescents With Autism and Developmental Disabilities
Powell, P. S., Cronin-Golomb, L. M., Wiggins, L. D., Alexander, A. A., Reyes, N. M., Nadler, C. B., Wise, E. A., Durkin, M. S., Thompson‐Paul, A. M., & Maenner, M. J. (2026) · Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2026.1306
Self-citation
- Authors
- Wiggins, L. D., Levy, S. E., Daniels, J., Schieve, L., Croen, L. A., DiGuiseppi, C., Blaskey, L., Giarelli, E., Lee, L.-C., Pinto-Martin, J., Reynolds, A., Rice, C., Rosenberg, C. R., Thompson, P., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., Young, L., & Schendel, D.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (US)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Kaiser Permanente (US)
- Colorado School of Public Health (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- University of Colorado Anschutz (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wiggins, Lisa D.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2015-06-06
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 3183-3194
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- PMC
- PMC4573234
- OpenAlex
- W625485995
- Cited by
- 57
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 3.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
- UNC Libraries
- Funders
- University of Pennsylvania (U10DD000182, U10DD000180, U10DD000181, U10DD000498, U10DD000184, U10DD000183)
- Michigan State University (U10DD000182, U10DD000498, U10DD000181, U10DD000183, U10DD000180, U10DD000184)
- Johns Hopkins University (U10DD000181, U10DD000183, U10DD000180, U10DD000182, U10DD000184, U10DD000498)
- Lundbeckfonden (R155-2014-1724)
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U01DD000750, U10DD000184, U10DD000182, U10DD000181, U01DD000498, U01DD001210, U10DD000183, U10DD000180, U10DD000498)
- College of Engineering, Michigan State University
- Kaiser Foundation Research Institute (U10DD000181, U10DD000182, U10DD000184, U10DD000498, U10DD000180, U10DD000183)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (U10DD000180, U10DD000181, U10DD000182, U10DD000184, U10DD000183, U10DD000498)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES013508)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, ASD risk, early childhood, cognitive function, adaptive behavior, behavioral functioning, social functioning, Study to Explore Early Development
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Child, Child Development, Developmental Disabilities, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Male, Parents, Phenotype
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