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Brief Report: Inter-Relationship between Emotion Regulation, Intolerance of Uncertainty, Anxiety, and Depression in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the inter-relationship between emotion regulation (ER), intolerance of uncertainty (IU), and symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Sixty-one individuals aged 14-24 years (M age = 18.19; SD age = 2.19) completed the ER Questionnaire, IU Scale-12, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5 Dimensional Anxiety Scales, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, and Autism-Spectrum Quotient-Short. Correlation and mediation analyses were conducted. Results indicated all key variables were associated with each other and IU mediated the relationships between ER and symptoms of anxiety and of depression. Findings have implications for the design of future interventions targeting affective disorders in ASD.
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“Existing research has identified alexithymia (ALX), emotion regulation difficulties, intolerance of uncertainty (IU) and sensory processing differences as some of the most significant contributors to anxiety in autism (Cai et al., 2018; Glod, 2017; Lidstone et al., 2014; Maisel et al., 2016; Pickard et al., 2020; South & Rodgers, 2017; Wigham et al., 2015).”
From Examining a model of anxiety in autistic adults (2024) · cites this paper as Cai et al., 2018
In the citing paper
“and Cai et al. (2018) found that IU fully mediated the relationship between ER difficulties and anxiety in autistic adolescents and young adults.”
From Examining a model of anxiety in autistic adults (2024) · cites this paper as Cai et al. (2018)
In the citing paper
“The finding of a large, direct effect of IU on depression symptoms in autistic young people was in keeping with previous research in this area (Cai et al., 2018; Hollocks et al., 2014).”
From Investigating the Effects of Transdiagnostic Processes on Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Autistic Young People: the Mediating Role of Emotion Dysregulation. (2025) · cites this paper as Cai et al., 2018
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Jenkinson, R., Milne, E., & Thompson, A. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320932437 · Cited by 205
“Five studies (Boulter et al., 2014; Cai et al., 2018; Joyce et al., 2017; Rodgers et al., 2016; Vasa et al., 2018) reported finding a large, significant association between self-reported anxiety and selfreported IoU.”
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Uljarević, M., Hedley, D., Foley, K., Magiati, I., Cai, R. Y., Dissanayake, C., Richdale, A. L., & Trollor, J. N. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04084-z · Cited by 181
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Self-citationMeasuring Depression in Autistic Adults: Psychometric Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory–II
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“As measures of depression and anxiety are highly correlated in the general population (Clark et al., 1994) and autistic individuals (R. Y. Cai et al., 2018; Griffiths et al., 2019; Nah et al., 2018), we examined the relationship between BDI-II and a measure of anxiety (Generalized Anxiety…”
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Emotion regulation in autism: reappraisal and suppression interactions
Cai, R. Y., Richdale, A. L., Dissanayake, C., Trollor, J., & Uljarević, M. (2019) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361318774558 · Cited by 71
Pathological Demand Avoidance: symptoms but not a syndrome
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Self-citationDell’Osso, L., Massoni, L., Battaglini, S., De Felice, C., Nardi, B., Amatori, G., Cremone, I. M., & Carpita, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1234518 · Cited by 55
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Carmassi, C., Conti, L., Gravina, D., Nardi, B., & Dell’Osso, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.900277 · Cited by 59
Mental Disorders Associated with COVID-19 Related Unemployment
Yao, R., & Wu, W. (2021) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-021-09950-6 · Cited by 53
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“ED has been defined as a condition and assessed by previous research through the use of various scales, including the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) (Gross and John 2003; Samson et al. 2012; Cai et al. 2018), the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) (Achenbach 1991; Samson et al.”
MethodIntrinsic and Extrinsic Predictors of Emotion Regulation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Fenning, R. M., Baker, J. K., & Moffitt, J. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3647-1 · Cited by 59
“2015) whereas other results indicate non-significant associations between chronological age and self-reported regulation (Cai et al. 2018; Pouw et al. 2013).”
ResultRegulating Together: Emotion Dysregulation Group Treatment for ASD Youth and Their Caregivers
Shaffer, R. C., Schmitt, L., Reisinger, D. L., Coffman, M. C., Horn, P. S., Goodwin, M. S., Mazefsky, C. A., Randall, S., & Erickson, C. A. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05461-x · Cited by 43
“…and thought, intolerance of uncertainty (Cai et al., 2018a, 2018b), executive functioning difficulties (Murray, 2010), poor problem solving (Cai et al., 2018a, 2018b), limited coping skills (Jahromi et al., 2012), sensory sensitivities (Rogers & Ozonoff, 2005), and biological risk (Cai et…”
BackgroundInfluentialPredictors of Mental Health in Chinese Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Su, X., Cai, R. Y., & Uljarević, M. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3364-1 · Cited by 43
“In addition, a number of recent childhood and adult studies have implicated IU as an important risk factor for anxiety in ASD (Boulter et al. 2014; Cai et al. 2017; Hodgson et al. 2016; Maisel et al. 2016; Neil et al. 2016; Wigham et al. 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSáez-Suanes, G. P., García-Villamisar, D., del Pozo Armentia, A., & Dattilo, J. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103784 · Cited by 33
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“…on an emotional, cognitive and behavioural level to uncertain situations and events’ (Buhr & Dugas, 2009, p. 216), which is consistent with the reported increase of intolerance of uncertainty (IU) in autism (Boulter et al., 2014; Cai et al., 2018; Hwang et al., 2020; Wigham et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialChoose your Own Adventure: Pathways to Adulthood Autism Diagnosis in Australia
Huang, Y., Arnold, S. R. C., Foley, K., & Trollor, J. N. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05169-4 · Cited by 30
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Differentiation of autism spectrum disorder and mood or anxiety disorder
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“Emotion regulation, self-regulation, and insistence on sameness are related to anxiety—in individuals with ASD and MAD (Cai et al., 2018; Uljarevic et al., 2017).”
Uljarević, M., Hedley, D., Nevill, R. E. A., Evans, D. W., Cai, R. Y., Butter, E. M., & Mulick, J. A. (2018) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1953 · Cited by 27
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“Cai et al. (2018) argue that high levels of intolerance of uncertainty and more use of maladaptive emotion regulation strategy (suppression) are associated with high levels of anxiety and depression.”
BackgroundCo-occurring mental health symptoms and cognitive processes in trauma-exposed ASD adults
Rumball, F., Antal, K., Happe, F. G. E., & Grey, N. (2021) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103836 · Cited by 29
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Anxiety and Depression from Adolescence to Old Age in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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Self-citationExamining a model of anxiety in autistic adults
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“As Cai et al. (2018) suggest, however, the relative use of adaptive versus maladaptive strategies often has greater implications for mental health than the absolute degree to which either strategy might be used, which was supported by the current findings in terms of the correlation between an ER…”
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Vasa, R. A., Kerns, C. M., Singh, V., McDonald, R. G., Jang, Y. S., & Keefer, A. J. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2968 · Cited by 16
Psychiatric Characteristics Across Individuals With PTEN Mutations
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Self-citationPathways to Anxiety and Depression in Autistic Adolescents and Adults
Richdale, A., Lawson, L., Chalmers, A., Uljarević, M., Morris, E., Arnold, S. R. C., & Trollor, J. N. (2023) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2023/5575932 · Cited by 16
“Intolerance of uncertainty was correlated with both anxiety and depression in autistic young adults ( N = 62 ) [34] and anxiety and sensory sensitivity in both autistic ( n = 176 ) and non-autistic adults ( n = 116 ) [35].”
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Emotion regulation strategies and perceived stress during pregnancy in expectant mothers and fathers
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“For example, Cai et al. (2018) found that this ratio, but neither strategy on its own, had a significant correlation with anxiety in a youth sample.”
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“…to non-autistic clinical and general community samples, emotion dysregulation and use of maladaptive ER strategies are associated with internalizing symptoms in autistic youth (Berkovits et al., 2017; Cai et al., 2018a, 2020, 2021; Charlton et al., 2019; Conner et al., 2020; White et al., 2014).”
Self-citationBrief Report: Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms among Autistic Adults
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“Autistic individuals with moderate-profound ID often experience difficulties across these domains (Cai, Richdale, Uljarevi (cid:1) c, et al., 2018; Nuske et al., 2017; Samson et al., 2022; Uljarevi (cid:1) c et al., 2022), which may contribute to more frequent and severe SIB.”
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Self-citationEffects of chronic stress on smartphone addiction: A moderated mediation model
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“Therefore, in future practice, cognitive behavior therapy or emotion regulation strategies can be used to reduce the intolerance of uncertainty that individuals feel when facing various types of pressure (42, 71).”
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“(Cai et al., 2018; Fenning et al., 2018; Mazefsky et al., 2012; Samson et al., 2014) Often challenges with communicating and understanding the feelings of others (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985) can lead to less interaction and social issues (Mundy, 1995; Spence, 2003), social camou fl aging (Hull et al.,…”
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Sáez‐Suanes, G. P., García-Villamisar, D. A., & Armentia, A. D. P. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613231161881 · Cited by 10
“Moreover, it is common to find work identifying the use of non-adaptive ER strategies as transdiagnostic factors in the development of internalizing-type disorders (Cai et al., 2018; Charlton et al., 2019).”
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Hedley, D., Hayward, S. M., Clarke, A., Uljarević, M., & Stokes, M. A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98697-1_3 · Cited by 9
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“…emotion regulation literature which suggests that adaptive strategies (reappraisal) may buffer the effects of maladaptive strategies (suppression), and that strategies used in conjunction with each other may act jointly on the mental health and well-being of autis - tic adults (Cai et al., 2018 ).”
Self-citationInfluence of Childhood Family Routines on Adult Depression: A Cross Sectional Study
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“of uncertainty, low tolerance of uncertainty will force him be more inclined to feel anxiety and depression when he encounters uncertain situations or events, even after his adulthood (Buhr and Dugas, 2006; Cai et al., 2018).”
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“Individuals with high IU tend to use maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, which can explain why they are more prone to anxiety, depression, and difficulty experiencing hap - piness (Gross & John, 2003 ; Chin & Rickard, 2014; Cai et al., 2018).”
Beneytez, C. (2023) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2023.102116 · Cited by 5
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“When the literature was reviewed, it was discovered that the concepts addressed in this study were addressed in pairs in previous studies (e.g., Cai et al., 2018; Cheon, 201 1).”
Johnson, M., & Saunderson, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1179015 · Cited by 6
Rosen, T. E., Rodriguez-Seijas, C. A., Gadow, K. D., & Lerner, M. D. (2022) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102413 · Cited by 4
Tollerfield, I., Chapman, H. M., & Lovell, A. (2021) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05092-8 · Cited by 4
“(2014) found links between inflexibilities and EDR and other researchers identified that an intolerance of uncertainty might be involved (Cai et al., 2018), particularly in the context of sensory differences (Neil et al.”
BackgroundDepression bei Erwachsenen mit Autismus-Spektrum-Störung
Albantakis, L., Parpart, H. M., Thaler, H., Krankenhagen, M., Böhm, J., Zillekens, I. C., & Schilbach, L. (2018) · Nervenheilkunde · doi:10.1055/s-0038-1670568 · Cited by 4
“Allgemein ließen sich in Abhängigkeit des Untersuchungssettings bisher Raten zwischen 15 und 70% für Depressionen als komorbide Störungen von ASS ermitteln (17).”
BackgroundKomoróczy, E., Sörnyei, D., Vass, Á., Szuromi, B., Vizin, G., Réthelyi, J., & Farkas, K. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.07.12.24310324 · Cited by 2
“…with autism has alexithymia (Albantakis et al., 2020); loneliness (Schiltz et al., 2021; Umagami et al., 2022) , emotion regulation deficits, and intolerance of uncertainty have also been found to be associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression in autistic populations (Cai et al., 2018) .”
BackgroundGao, Y., Salekin, A., Gordon, K. C., Rose, K. M., Wang, H., & Stankovic, J. A. (2021) · ACM Transactions on Computing for Healthcare · doi:10.1145/3492300 · Cited by 2
“Many research papers from the field of psychology [9, 15, 31, 32] have shown that emotional health is a crucial part of one’s well-being.”
BackgroundGundeslioglu, H., Gray, K. M., Thompson, P. A., & Langdon, P. E. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-07002-8 · Cited by 2
Suanes, G. P. S., García-Villamisar, D. A., & Armentia, A. D. P. (2023) · Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica · doi:10.5944/rppc.37329 · Cited by 2
“Este conjunto de cir-cunstancias ha llevado a que la investigación se haya centrado, casi en exclusiva, en muestras sin DI (Cai et al., 2018; Mayes et al., 2020) dejando a la población con TEA y DI desprotegida ante el desarrollo de psicopato-logías comunes como la ansiedad.”
Baker, J. K., Fenning, R. M., & McElvain, P. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-06720-3 · Cited by 1
“…are somewhat mixed, a number of studies link emotion regulation with child chronological age and intellectual functioning (Berkovits et al., 2017; Cai et al., 2018; Fenning et al., 2018; Greenlee et al., 2021; Konstantareas & Stewart, 2006; Mills et al., 2022; Northrup et al., 2021; Pouw et al.,…”
Ruffin, N. M., & Sanusi, P. (2025) · Neurodiversity · doi:10.1177/27546330251353629 · Cited by 1
“Internalizing symptoms and disorders such as anxiety and depression are also common cooccurring conditions associated with autism (Cai et al., 2018; Kerns et al., 2015; Williams et al., 2022).”
Smith, K., Perry, V., Groves, L., Moss, J. F., Oliver, C., Knight, E., Patterson, T. G., Rodgers, J., Waite, J., & Crawford, H. (2025) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.70024 · Cited by 1
Brosnan, M., Marikar, S., Punter, M., & Ashwin, C. (2025) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-025-06987-6 · Cited by 1
Co-designed yoga nidra targeting anxiety in autistic children: A mixed methods feasibility study
Loftus, T., Yau, S. H., Soares, S., Byrne, J., & Mathersul, D. C. (2026) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2026.105367 · Cited by 2
Chunyan, L. I. U., & Chen, G. (2019) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2019.01713 · Cited by 1
Sáez‐Suanes, G. P., García-Villamisar, D. A., & Armentia, A. D. P. (2023) · Studies in Psychology Estudios de Psicología · doi:10.1080/02109395.2022.2163780 · Cited by 1
Saruhan, R., Saruhan, Ç., & Gümüş, F. (2023) · Journal of Academic Research in Nursing · doi:10.55646/jaren.2023.54765 · Cited by 1
Ahmadi, Z., Amiri, S., Kalantari, M., Abedi, M. R., & Vardanjani, H. M. (2020) · Biannual Journal of Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.29252/bjcp.14.2.15 · Cited by 1
Algebres a operateurs de nombre de presentation quadratique
Besnard, F. (2000) · OpenGrey (Institut de l'Information Scientifique et Technique) · Cited by 1
Conceptualization of comorbid anxiety in autism spectrum disorder: An integrative literature review
Behzadpour, S., Pouretemad, H., & Akbarizardkhaneh, S. (2021) · Koomesh journal · doi:10.29252/koomesh.23.1.11
“[31] Cai RY, Richdale AL, Dissanayake C, Uljarević M.”
BackgroundDavenport, M. (2021) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/88048
Hillegers, M. H. J., Sivathasan, A. T. R., & van der Aalst, K. S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_61-3
Hillegers, M. H. J., Sivathasan, A. T. R., & van der Aalst, K. S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91280-6_61
Milgramm, A. (2022) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/6kqd-nrw8
“Everyone Else Wants Cotton Candy and All You Want Is a Grape”
Dymond, K. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4445-4.ch009
Rothe, J., Thiel, T., Roessner, V., & Ring, M. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-025-07430-x
Loftus, T., Yau, S. H., Byrne, J., & Mathersul, D. C. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.70136
“Over time, this can facilitate a chronic state of poor ER, predisposing and maintaining a state of anxiety [10].”
Ruiz, M., Arranz, M. J., Pérez, V., & Amaia Hervas, G. (2025) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-025-02171-0
Mazefsky, C. A., Bradley, M., Duman, K., Beck, K. B., Conner, C. M., Powell, N., Siegle, G. J., Jones, S. L., Trabert, C., Tonarely, N. A., et al. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03891-7
Metadata
- Authors
- Cai, R. Y., Richdale, A. L., Dissanayake, C., & Uljarević, M.
- Affiliations
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Richdale, Amanda L.
- Venue
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders
- Published
- 2017-10-04
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 316-325
- ISSN
- 0162-3257 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-3432
- OpenAlex
- W2762404107
- Cited by
- 107
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 1
- FWCI
- 5.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism (3.016RC)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, emotion regulation, intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety, depression, adolescents and young adults, mediation, mood disorders, mental health
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Anxiety, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Emotions, Female, Humans, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Uncertainty, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Young Adult, Research Report
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