Cited by 261Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research TopicsIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Brooding and reflection as subtypes of rumination: evidence from confirmatory factor analysis in nonclinical samples using the dutch ruminative response scale.

Schoofs, Hanne, Hermans, Dirk, Raes, Filip·2010·Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment

DOI 10.1007/s10862-010-9182-9

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Evaluating the Fit of Structural Equation Models: Tests of Significance and Descriptive Goodness-of-Fit Measures
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003) · Department of Psychology - University of Koblenz-Landau · doi:10.23668/psycharchives.12784 · Cited by 8,975
Rethinking rumination
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x · Cited by 5,172
Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6 · Cited by 5,099 · cited 1×
“The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer et al. 1990) is a 16-item questionnaire measuring the tendency to worry.”
Method
Model Selection and Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC): The General Theory and its Analytical Extensions
Bozdogan, H. (1987) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294361 · Cited by 4,468
Rumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023910315561 · Cited by 3,808
A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115 · Cited by 3,276
Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought
Watkins, E. R. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 · Cited by 2,421
Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder.
Williams, J. M. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., & Dalgleish, T. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122 · Cited by 1,688 · cited 1×
“Both the original WBSI and the Dutch version which we used in the present study (Muris et al. 1996) show good internal and temporal reliability as well as concurrent validity (Muris and Merckelbach 1997; Muris et al. 1996; Van den Hout et al. 1996; Wegner and Zanakos 1994 ).”
MethodSelf-citation
Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection.
Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 · Cited by 1,646
Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061 · Cited by 1,543

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Items 101–200 of 228

Childhood Cancer Physical Symptom Burden and Parent Distress: The Role of Parent Rumination
Fisher, R. S., Perez, M. N., Basile, N. L., Pepper, M., Gamwell, K., McNall-Knapp, R., Carter, J. C., Mayes, S., Chaney, J., & Mullins, L. (2021) · Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1037/cpp0000403 · Cited by 19
“Previous research evidences that the RRS has appropriate divergent and convergent validity, as well as good test – retest reliability and internal reliability (Nolen-Hoeksema & Mor-row, 1991; Perez et al., 2018; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Decreasing Event Centrality in Undergraduates Using Cognitive Bias Modification of Appraisals
Vermeulen, M., Brown, A. D., Raes, F., & Krans, J. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9936-3 · Cited by 20
Self-citation
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Janssen, N. P., Huibers, M. J. H., Lucassen, P. L., Voshaar, R. C. O., van Marwijk, H., Bosmans, J. E., Pijnappels, M. A. G. M., Spijker, J., & Hendriks, G. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1388-x · Cited by 22
“The reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity of the brooding scale are appropriate, and it predicts depressive symptoms prospectively [66].”
Background
Differential correlates of autobiographical memory specificity to affective and self-discrepant cues
Wessel, I., Postma, I., Huntjens, R., Crane, C., Smets, J., Zeeman, G., & Barnhofer, T. (2014) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.811255 · Cited by 19
“Later versions of the RRS (Treynor et al., 2003; see also Schoofs et al., 2010) were slightly altered and incorporate a Brooding and a Reflection subscale.”
Method
Depressive Rumination and Social Problem Solving in Japanese University Students
Hasegawa, A., Yoshida, T., Hattori, Y., Nishimura, H., Morimoto, H., & Tanno, Y. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.29.2.134 · Cited by 19
“Consistent with this finding, Schoofs et al. (2010) and Pearson, Watkins, and Mullan (2010) showed that brooding was positively associated with depression at 6-month follow-up, whereas reflection was not prospectively associated with depression.1”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Depressive symptom trajectory following romantic relationship breakup and effects of rumination, neuroticism and cognitive control
Verhallen, A., Alonso-Martínez, S., Renken, R., Marsman, J., & ter Horst, G. T. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3123 · Cited by 18
“The RRS‐NL‐EXT is the most recent official Dutch language version of the RRS (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential
Does it help to talk about it? Co-rumination, internalizing symptoms, and committed action during the COVID-19 global pandemic
Starr, L. R., Huang, M., & Scarpulla, E. (2021) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.07.004 · Cited by 24
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“Although there is still a paucity of research on brooding and reflection in PTS, this echoes prior evidence that reflection is less of a maladaptive strategy compared to brooding (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
BackgroundResult
Depressive rumination and urgency have mutually enhancing relationships but both predict unique variance in future depression: A longitudinal study
Hasegawa, A., Kunisato, Y., Morimoto, H., Nishimura, H., & Matsuda, Y. (2018) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2018.1450919 · Cited by 18
“Adequate psychometric properties of the RRS, including good internal consistency and construct validity, as well as moderate test-retest reliability for the total and subscale scores, have been reported (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Method
The dual roles of trait rumination in problem solving
Hubbard, N. A., Faso, D. J., Krawczyk, D. C., & Rypma, B. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.034 · Cited by 18
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Self-citation
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Conley, C. S., Gonzales, C. H., Huguenel, B. M., Rauch, A. A., Kahrilas, I. J., Duffecy, J. L., & Silton, R. L. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02398-3 · Cited by 21
“The Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999) is one of the most widely used self-report instruments to assess depressive rumination (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
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Is the widely used two‐factor structure of the Ruminative Responses Scale invariant across different samples of women?
Lucena‐Santos, P., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., Carvalho, S. A., & Oliveira, M. D. S. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12168 · Cited by 30
“, 2010), thought suppression (Schoofs et al., 2010), Table 4.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Causes and consequences of stress generation: Longitudinal associations of negative events, aggressive behaviors, rumination, and depressive symptoms
Hasegawa, A., Oura, S.-I., Yamamoto, T., Kunisato, Y., Matsuda, Y., & Adachi, M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02859-9 · Cited by 21
“Adequate psychometric properties of the RRS, including good internal consistency and construct validity and moderate test-retest reliability of the total and subscale scores, have been reported (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
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Boelen, P., & Lenferink, L. (2020) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2482 · Cited by 16
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Barry, T., Takano, K., Boddez, Y., & Raes, F. (2019) · Behavioural Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2018.1435542 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
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Rosebrock, L., Hall, K. A. A., Rando, A. A., Pineles, S., & Liverant, G. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9935-4 · Cited by 16
Is Trait Rumination Associated with the Ability to Generate Effective Problem Solving Strategies? Utilizing Two Versions of the Means-Ends Problem-Solving Test
Hasegawa, A., Nishimura, H., Mastuda, Y., Kunisato, Y., Morimoto, H., & Adachi, M. (2015) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-015-0227-6 · Cited by 16
“…several longitudinal studies demonstrated that brooding was associated with more depression at 6 months to 1 year later, whereas reflection was associated with less depression or was not associated (Treynor et al. 2003; Pearson et al. 2010; Schoofs et al. 2010; except for Hasegawa et al. 2015a).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Prospective Associations of Depressive Rumination and Social Problem Solving with Depression: A 6-Month Longitudinal Study
Hasegawa, A., Hattori, Y., Nishimura, H., & Tanno, Y. (2015) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/02.20.pr0.116k28w7 · Cited by 16
“Consistent with this fi nding, Schoofs, Hermans, and Raes (2010 ) and Pearson, Watkins, and Mullan (2010 ) showed that brooding was positively associated with depression assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory–”
Method
Factor Structure of the Ruminative Response Scale and Measurement Invariance across Gender and Age among Chinese Adolescents
Liang, L., & Lee, Y.-H. (2019) · Advances in Applied Sociology · doi:10.4236/aasoci.2019.96016 · Cited by 20
“These results was similar with the previous researches of Dutch (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003) and other Asian countries (Shin et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Cognitive behavioural therapy for psychopathology in relatives of missing persons: study protocol for a pilot randomised controlled trial
Lenferink, L. I. M., Wessel, I., de Keijser, J., & Boelen, P. A. (2016) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-016-0055-1 · Cited by 14
“Psychometric properties of this measure are adequate [64, 66].”
Background
Influence of Maternal Depression on Children’s Brooding Rumination: Moderation by CRHR1 TAT Haplotype
Woody, M. L., Kudinova, A. Y., McGeary, J., Knopik, V., Palmer, R., & Gibb, B. E. (2015) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.998631 · Cited by 15
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Rosario‐Williams, B., & Miranda, R. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10373-w · Cited by 14
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Li, C.-F., Wu, Q., Gu, D.-B., & Ni, S. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04011-0 · Cited by 13
Depression, Rumination, and Impulsive Action: A Latent Variable Approach to Behavioral Impulsivity
Hasegawa, A., Somatori, K., Nishimura, H., Hattori, Y., & Kunisato, Y. (2021) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2021.1956871 · Cited by 17
“Adequate psychometric properties of the RRS, including good internal consistency and construct validity, and the moderate test-retest reliability of the total and subscale scores have been reported (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Background
Relations between anxiety sensitivity’s cognitive concerns and anxiety severity: brooding and reflection as serial multiple mediators
Yang, H.-B., Zhao, X., Fang, J., & Elhai, J. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02195-4 · Cited by 13
Ruminative Inertia, Emotion Regulation, and Depression: A Daily-Diary Study
Bean, C. A. L., Heggeness, L. F., & Ciesla, J. A. (2021) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2021.04.004 · Cited by 25
Perceived stress in the time of COVID-19: the association with brooding and COVID-related rumination in adults with and without migraine
Kovács, L., Baksa, D., Dobos, D., Eszlari, N., Gecse, K., Kocsel, N., Juhász, G., & Kökönyei, G. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00549-y · Cited by 13
“Brooding has been repeatedly associated with depressive symptoms [18, 19], anxiety [20] and prolonged stress reaction [16].”
Background
Eight items of the ruminative response scale are sufficient to measure weekly within-person variation in rumination
Brose, A., de Raedt, R., & Vanderhasselt, M. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-00913-y · Cited by 13
Added value of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A Tree-based Qualitative Interaction Analysis
ter Avest, M. J., Dusseldorp, E., Huijbers, M. J., van Aalderen, J. R., Cladder-Micus, M. B., Spinhoven, P., Greven, C. U., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2019) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.103467 · Cited by 16
If I Only Knew Why: The Relationship Between Brooding, Beliefs About Rumination, and Perceptions of Treatments
Ophir, Y., & Mor, N. (2014) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2014.03.004 · Cited by 14
“Positive beliefs about rumination, however, contradict the vast majority of studies evaluating the negative aspects of rumination (e.g., Schoofs et al., 2010; Whitmer, 2010; Willem et al., 2011).”
Result
Self-discrepancy and reduced autobiographical memory specificity in ruminating students and depressed patients
Schoofs, H., Hermans, D., Griffith, J. W., & Raes, F. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.703640 · Cited by 13
“In addition, our induction may have caused non-reflective individuals to consider (i.e., reflect upon) their actual ideal self-discrepancies, so from this perspective, it is not surprising that the induction had a large impact upon people scoring low on the RRS reflection subscale.5 Second, in the control group in Stu…”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Coping Flexibility and Health-Related Quality of Life Among Older Adults: The Compensatory Effect of Co-rumination
Kroemeke, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00059 · Cited by 14
Rethinking a Negative Event: The Affective Impact of Ruminative versus Imagery-Based Processing of Aversive Autobiographical Memories
Slofstra, C., Eisma, M., Holmes, E., Bockting, C., & Nauta, M. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00082 · Cited by 12
Improving mental health by improving the mental health literacy? Study protocol for a randomised controlled evaluation of an e-mental health application as a preventive intervention for adolescents and young adults
Krokos, O., Brandhorst, I., Seizer, L., Gawrilow, C., & Löchner, J. (2024) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2024.100733 · Cited by 15
Fear of happiness and its predictive effect on depressive symptoms in depressed inpatients versus healthy controls
Vuyst, H.-J. D., Belmans, E., Takano, K., Depreeuw, B., Grave, C. D., & Raes, F. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100589 · Cited by 11
Self-citation
The Moderating Effects of Rumination Facets on the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Distress Reduction
Conley, S. L., Faleer, H. E., Raza, G. T., Bailey, B. E., & Wu, K. D. (2018) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-018-9896-7 · Cited by 14
The Manifestation of Stress and Rumination in Musicians
Roy, M. M., Radzevick, J. R., & Getz, L. M. (2016) · Muziki · doi:10.1080/18125980.2016.1182385 · Cited by 11
Depressed mood mediates the relationship between rumination and intrusions
Smets, J., Luyckx, K., Wessel, I., & Raes, F. (2012) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9536.2012.00056.x · Cited by 11
Self-citation
Revisiting the Factor Structure of the Ruminative Response Scale: a Bifactor Approach
Valencia, P. D., & Paredes-Angeles, R. (2022) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-022-00214-2 · Cited by 10
“…has 1 3 Trends in Psychology (2024) 32:1408–1425 larger correlations with depression, even though the correlation of reflection and depression is significant too (Armey et al., 2009; Dinis et al., 2011; Hernández-Martínez et al., 2016; Lee & Kim, 2014; Schoofs et al., 2010; Shin et al., 2015).”
Influential
Reflective rumination mediates the effects of neuroticism upon the fading affect bias in autobiographical memory
Muir, K., Madill, A., & Brown, C. (2022) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2022.2041080 · Cited by 10
“…on the other hand, is described as a “passive comparison of one’s current situation with some unachieved standard” (Treynor et al., 2003, p. 256), and has been associated with higher levels of negative affect (Moberly & Watkins, 2008), and predicts depressive symptoms (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Response inhibition deficits are positively associated with trait rumination, but attentional inhibition deficits are not: aggressive behaviors and interpersonal stressors as mediators
Hasegawa, A., Matsumoto, N., Yamashita, Y., Tanaka, K., Kawaguchi, J., & Yamamoto, T. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01537-y · Cited by 11
Cross-Cultural Validity of the Ruminative Responses Scale in Argentina and the United States
Arana, F., & Rice, K. G. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191117729204 · Cited by 11
“Another option would have been to retain the items but allow error variances for those items to correlate (Cova et al., 2007; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Reduced autobiographical memory specificity relates to weak resistance to proactive interference
Smets, J., Wessel, I., & Raes, F. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.11.002 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Rumination, worry and negative problem orientation: transdiagnostic processes of anxiety, eating behavior and mood disorders
González, M., Ibáñez, I., & Barrera, A. (2017) · Acta Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.14718/acp.2017.20.2.3 · Cited by 8
Decoding ruminative reflection in healthy individuals: The role of triple network connectivity
Wei, L., Dong, H., Zhang, Z., Baeken, C., Wang, Y., & Wu, G. (2024) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100508 · Cited by 9
“Previous studies have shown that these two subtypes of rumination exert divergent influences on the development of depressive symptoms (Burwell & Shirk, 2007; Cox et al., 2012; Hase-gawa et al., 2013; Pearson et al., 2010; Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Neural Correlates of Sustained Attention and Cognitive Control in Depression and Rumination: An ERP Study.
Owens, M., Renaud, J., & Cloutier, M. (2021) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2021.135942 · Cited by 8
La Escala de Control Intencional para adultos: propiedades psicométricas de la versión catalana y sus relaciones con la regulación emocional cognitiva.
Tortella‐Feliu, M., Fernández, I. I., García‐Banda, G., Balle, M., Aguayo-Siquier, B., Morillas-Romero, A., & Llabrés, J. (2013) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.29.3.135111 · Cited by 9
Sex/gender-specific association between emotion regulation strategies and eating disorders symptoms: a systematic review
Sobieska, A., Kolanska, J., Błauciak, P., Ciechanowska-Jagodzinska, M., & Zarychta, K. (2025) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-025-01434-4 · Cited by 10
“…investigate the relationship between rumination and the symptomatology of EDs, taking into account potential sex/gender differences, particularly highlighting brooding, a subtype of rumination that has already been shown to be a strong risk factor for other disorders, such as depression [61, 62].”
Do people who highly value happiness tend to ruminate?
Takai, S., Hasegawa, A., Shigematsu, J., & Yamamoto, T. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-04131-6 · Cited by 7
“Brood - ing and reflection are distinct subcomponents of rumination because brooding has a stronger association with depres - sive symptoms than reflection (e.g., Pearson et al., 2010; Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Subjective cognitive impairment and presenteeism mediate the associations of rumination with subjective well-being and ill-being in Japanese adult workers from the community
Toyoshima, K., Ichiki, M., Inoue, T., Shimura, A., Masuya, J., Fujimura, Y., Higashi, S., & Kusumi, I. (2021) · BioPsychoSocial Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13030-021-00218-x · Cited by 7
“The validity and reliability of the RRS have been previously shown, and the RRS has been confirmed to have adequate psychometric properties [47, 48].”
Background
Brooding as moderator of depressive symptoms after a work accident: A longitudinal study
García, F. E., Félix Cova, S., Páez, D., & Miranda, F. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12433 · Cited by 6
Increased Attentional Control for Emotional Distractors Moderates the use of Reflective Pondering in Times of Life Stress: A Prospective Study
Vanderhasselt, M., Koster, E., Goubert, L., & de Raedt, R. (2012) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.846 · Cited by 7
The Leuven Exeter Dampening Scale (LEDS) to measure dampening appraisals towards positive affect: Psychometric evaluation and initial validation in a Dutch and English community sample.
Bogaert, L., Lau, H., Dunn, B., & Raes, F. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104861 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Ruminative response scale for eating disorders: bifactor model and measurement invariance in a Portuguese community sample
Marques, C., Castilho, P., Pereira, A. T., Goss, K., Castelo-Branco, M., & Macedo, A. (2023) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2023.2259676 · Cited by 6
“Several studies examining the general construct of rumination have high-lighted that ruminative brooding is linked to more deleterious outcomes, constituting a more maladaptive form of rumination (e.g., Burwell & Shirk, 2007; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Depressive rumination and political engagement
Bernardi, L., Gotlib, I., & Bernardi, F. (2023) · Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2023.2246371 · Cited by 6
“…sample of the GB adult population (aged 3 The differences among depression, brooding and reflective pondering are well-established (Miranda and Nolen-Hoeksema 2007; Schoofs, Hermans, and Raes 2010; Whitmer and Gotlib 2011) and factor analysis using our data supports this view (Table S3-S5).”
Increasing autobiographical memory specificity: Using kindness meditation to impact features of memory retrieval
Lathan, A., & Dritschel, B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287007 · Cited by 6
“The brooding and reflection subscales consist of five items each [62] and the RRS has been shown to have reliability and discriminant validity of the subscales [61].”
Background
The relationship between depressive symptoms, metamemory, and prospective memory in older adults
Coelho, C. D. S., Zuber, S., Künzi, M., Joly-Burra, E., & Kliegel, M. (2023) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2023.2195618 · Cited by 9
“Other previous studies investigating rumination indicated that rumination is composed of two subcomponents: the brooding and reflection components (Krys, 2020; Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Background
Community connectedness and depression in transgender populations: The role of self-focused attention
Taber, J. L., Gao, S., Lynn, S. G., Brusche, D., & Stults, C. B. (2022) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075221135219 · Cited by 5
“This supports the distinct effects of rumination versus reflection that have been found in prior literature (Burwell, 2007; Mori & Tanno, 2015; Schoofs et al., 2010) and extends these findings to TNB identity-specific self-focused attention, as well as demonstrating that preoccupation with others’…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Depressive rumination is correlated with brain responses during self-related processing
Hsu, T.-Y., Liu, T.-L., Cheng, P. Z., Lee, H.-C., Lane, T., & Duncan, N. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1503/jpn.210052 · Cited by 6
“The reflective and brooding subscales were focused on here as these separate behaviours into adaptive reflective thoughts and maladaptive brooding thoughts (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Depressive Rumination and Past Depression in Japanese University Students: Comparison of Brooding and Reflection
Hasegawa, A., Koda, M., Hattori, Y., Kondo, T., & Kawaguchi, J. (2014) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/15.03.pr0.114k26w6 · Cited by 6
Mediators and Predictors of Treatment Response in a Brief Online Intervention for Rumination and Worry
Upton, E., Venkatesha, V., Joubert, A., Mahoney, A. E. J., Moulds, M. L., Werner-Seidler, A., & Newby, J. M. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10593-2 · Cited by 5
“…2010), test re-test reliability and internal consistency (α = 0.69–0.78; Schoofs et al., 2010), convergent validity with other measures of rumination and depression (Griffith & Raes, 2014 ; Schoofs et al., 2010 ; Valencia & Paredes-Angeles, 2022), and discriminant validity (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Influential
Co-rumination and depression: A systematic review and future directions
Badawi, J. C., & Ingram, R. E. (2025) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2025.44.1.002 · Cited by 5
Childhood Trauma and Depressive Level Among Chinese College Students in Guangzhou: The Roles of Rumination and Perceived Stress
Wang, J., Liang, Q., Yang, A., Ma, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2024) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2023.0188 · Cited by 8
“43 Previous studies 44,45 have shown that the Chinese version of the RRS-22 has excellent convergent validity and internal consistency.”
Background
Correlates of repetitive negative thinking in postnatal first time mothers
Moulds, M. L., Black, M. J., Newby, J., & Hirsch, C. (2021) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646838.2021.1946023 · Cited by 5
“We administered the full RRS but report the brooding subscale here, given evidence its capacity to predict rumination over time (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Method
Phenomenological aspects of the cognitive rumination construct.
Meyer, L., Taborda, J., da Costa, F. A., Soares, A. L. A. G., Mecler, K., & Valença, A. M. (2015) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2014-0025 · Cited by 5
Perfectionism and Suicidal Ideation in Outpatient Depressed Adults: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem, Loneliness and Rumination
Niels, H., Stikkelbroek, Y. A. J., Vermulst, A. A., van Bentum, J. S., Driessen, E., Spijker, J., Huibers, M. J. H., Sijbrandij, M., & Creemers, D. H. M. (2024) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-024-00568-9 · Cited by 4
“85 ; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
“Always Look on the Bright Side of Life”
Sankaran, S., Szumowska, E., & Kossowska, M. (2024) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000413 · Cited by 4
Do savoring beliefs predict posttraumatic stress symptoms following stressful life events?
Boelen, P. (2023) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2023.2226871 · Cited by 4
“English (Treynor et al., 2003) and Dutch studies (Schoofs et al., 2010) have supported the scale ’ s psychometric properties (present sample ’ s α was .61).”
Background
Factors that contribute to trait mindfulness level among hospitalized patients with major depressive disorder
Ji, C., Wu, G.-H., Du, X., Wang, G., Liu, L., Niu, M., Logan, R. A., & Kong, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1144989 · Cited by 4
“Finally, we used the 22-question Rumination Response Scale (RRS) to score a patient’s depression symptoms and response to their depression by assessing their tendencies toward two opposite subtypes of rumination: brooding and reflection (27).”
Method
The role of perseverative cognition in the job strain-health outcome relationship
McCarrick, D. J., Prestwich, A., & O'Connor, D. B. (2023) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2022.2154353 · Cited by 4
“Given Brooding is seen as more damaging than reflection in terms of health (cf., Schoofs et al., 2010), we repeated the analyses substituting the overall general rumination scores with the brooding scores.”
Self-directed passive-aggressive behaviour as an essential component of depression: findings from two cross-sectional observational studies
Schanz, C. G., Equit, M., Schäfer, S. K., & Michael, T. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03850-1 · Cited by 7
“The RSS was found to demonstrate good reliability and validity in different studies [77, 78].”
Result
The role of rumination and positive beliefs about rumination in eating pathology
Rich, A., Haynos, A., Anderson, D., Ehrlich, L. E., & Anderson, L. (2021) · Eating and Weight Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40519-021-01209-1 · Cited by 4
Behavioral and neural dynamics of cognitive control in the context of rumination
Muscarella, C., Maîresse, O., Hughes, G., & den Bussche, E. V. (2020) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107503 · Cited by 10
Patients' health related quality of life after coronary revascularization : a longitudinal mixed method study
Takousi, M. (2017) · doi:10.18745/th.19249 · Cited by 4
Repetitive Negative Thinking Predicts Depressed Mood at 3-Year Follow-up in Students
Raes, F. (2012) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-012-9295-4 · Cited by 65
Self-citation
The Penn State Worry Questionnaire—Past Day: Development and Validation of a Measure Assessing Daily Levels of Worry
Joos, E., Vansteenwegen, D., Brunfaut, E., Bastiaens, T., Demyttenaere, K., Pieters, G., & Hermans, D. (2011) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9265-2 · Cited by 16
Self-citation
Mechanics of Mindfulness: Investigating Metacognitive Beliefs as a Pathway of Effect on Anxiety and Depression
Jackson, C., & Jones, C. M. (2025) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe15060109 · Cited by 5
“Rumination has been reliably classified into reflective and brooding subtypes (Treynor et al., 2003), which differ in how they mediate both the onset and maintenance of depression (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Validation of the Dutch Self-Critical Rumination Scale (SCRS-NL)
Allaert, J., Bruecker, M. D., Raes, F., Raedt, R. D., Nagy, L. M., & Vanderhasselt, M. (2025) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000889 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Examination of Cross‐National and Gender Differences in Rumination and Its Association with Depression: A Cross‐Sectional Comparison Between Residents of the United Kingdom and Japan
Umegaki, Y., Yoshinaga, N., & Kobori, O. (2024) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12547 · Cited by 4
On assessing trait rumination using the Ruminative Response Scale
Int-Veen, I., Ehlis, A., Fallgatter, A. J., & Rosenbaum, D. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1368390 · Cited by 3
The Prevalence and Correlates of Suicidality in a Sample of Adolescents in Guangdong, China
Yan, P., Ren, Y., Li, M., Lin, M., Xu, S., Liu, J., Zhou, G., Xu, L., & You, J. (2020) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2020.39.02.77 · Cited by 5
Negative repetitive thoughts clarify the link between trait emotional intelligence and emotional distress
Constantin, K., Penney, A. M., Pope, C. J., Miedema, V. C., Tett, R. P., & Mazmanian, D. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00497-2 · Cited by 3
Depressive symptom clusters among the elderly: a longitudinal study of course and its correlates
Kroemeke, A., & Gruszczyńska, E. (2014) · Health Psychology Report · doi:10.5114/hpr.2014.46694 · Cited by 3
“Therefore, reflection can also be a different, more cognitively advanced, kind of rumination, and so it is often considered (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Who develops? Understanding the role of leadership mindset in developmental opportunities
Walter, S. L. (2016) · doi:10.17077/etd.cx0wgi85 · Cited by 3
Cognitive Vulnerability to Emotional Symptoms: Reconsidering the Role of Worry and Rumination
Merino, H., Ferreiro, F., & Senra, C. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9374-1 · Cited by 2
The mediating roles of interpersonal sensitivity and rumination in the relationship between self-esteem and depression: a longitudinal study on Chinese psychiatric patients
Yin, X.-F., Li, Y., Ye, Y.-Y., Wang, Y., Zha, Y., Xu, L., Qin, X., Wei, S., & Feng, X. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02899-3 · Cited by 2
Negative Emotions, Working Memory, and Risk-Related Regulatory Behaviors in Active-Duty Firefighters and First-Year College Students
Mitchell, B. J., Baugher, B. J., & Coifman, K. G. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10614-0 · Cited by 1
A psychological model of predictive factors of distress following long COVID
Brown, S. A., Holland, J. F., Gaynor, K., Bramham, J., O’Keeffe, F. M., O'Flanagan, S., Savinelli, S., Mallon, P. W. G., Feeney, E. R., Kenny, G., et al. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.12.049 · Cited by 4
High Hope and Low Rumination Are Antecedents of Grit
Raphiphatthana, B., & Jose, P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-57389-8_10 · Cited by 2
Moderating Effects of Brooding and Co-Rumination on the Relationship Between Stress and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adolescence: A Multi-Wave Study
Bastin, M., Mezulis, A. H., Ahles, J., Raes, F., & Bijttebier, P. (2014) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9912-7 · Cited by 93
“…Treynor et al. 2003, p. 256) that has proven to predict the course and severity of depressive symptoms in both youth and adult populations, with higher levels of brooding being related to higher levels of depressive symptoms (e.g., Burwell and Shirk 2007; Schoofs et al. 2010; Treynor et al. 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Repetitive Thought and Health Anxiety: Tests of Specificity
Fergus, T. A. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9340-y · Cited by 1
Role of self-focus in the relationship between depressed mood and problem solving
Mori, M., Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2015) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-015-9486-x · Cited by 20
Sequential influences of emotion regulation and rumination in trait mindfulness-depression relationships
Maruthy, G. B., Himes, L. M., Hubbard, N. A., Spence, J. S., & Bart Rypma, A. (2026) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2026.122331 · Cited by 1
DSM‐5 AMPD Maladaptive Personality Traits: One‐Year Temporal Stability and Associations With Therapeutic Processes and Outcomes
Buck, B., Chauhan, K., Thompson, R., & Donahue, J. J. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.70070 · Cited by 1
A Cross-national Investigation of the Reciprocal Relationships Between Trait Rumination and Depression Among Residents of the United Kingdom and Japan: A Prospective Longitudinal Study
Umegaki, Y., Yoshinaga, N., & Kobori, O. (2025) · International Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-025-00255-2 · Cited by 1
“Among the various facets of rumination, brooding represents a maladaptive component that contributes to maladaptive consequences such as depression and suicidal ideation (e.g., Hasegawa, 2013; Schoofs et al., 2010; Surrence et al., 2009; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Exploring the optimal factor structure of mind-wandering: Associations with neuroticism
Diehl, J., Camacho, N. L., & Smoski, M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311733 · Cited by 1
Examining Negative Thinking Styles and Thought Control Strategies Within Borderline Personality Disorder
Mason, C. K., Rios, L. A., & DeShong, H. L. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-023-10058-4 · Cited by 1
“While several other studies have further validated this factor structure (e.g., Schoofs et al., 2010), not all studies have done so (e.g., Griffith & Rae, 2014).”

Authors: Schoofs, H., Hermans, D., & Raes, F.
Affiliations: KU Leuven (BE)
Corresponding author: Schoofs, Hanne
ORCID: Hermans, Dirk
Raes, Filip
Venue: Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2010-03-02
Volume: 32
Issue: 4
Pages: 609-617
ISSN: 0164-0305 (ISSN-L)
0882-2689
1573-3505
DOI: 10.1007/s10862-010-9182-9
OpenAlex: W2028185525
Cited by: 261
References: 57
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 11
FWCI: 17.59
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment (publishedVersion)
Lirias (submittedVersion)
Funders: Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: rumination, brooding, reflection, depressive rumination, Ruminative Response Scale, psychometric properties, factor structure, depressive symptoms, non-clinical sample

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Brooding and reflection as subtypes of rumination: evidence from confirmatory factor analysis in nonclinical samples using the dutch ruminative response scale.

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