CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 1,688Identity, Memory, and TherapyMemory Processes and InfluencesAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder.

Open access
Williams, J. Mark G., Barnhofer, Thorsten, Crane, Catherine, Herman, Dirk, Raes, Filip, Watkins, Ed, Dalgleish, Tim·2007·Psychological Bulletin
DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122PMC PMC2834574
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The authors review research showing that when recalling autobiographical events, many emotionally disturbed patients summarize categories of events rather than retrieving a single episode. The mechanisms underlying such overgeneral memory are examined, with a focus on M. A. Conway and C. W. Pleydell-Pearce's (2000) hierarchical search model of personal event retrieval. An elaboration of this model is proposed to account for overgeneral memory, focusing on how memory search can be affected by (a) capture and rumination processes, when mnemonic information used in retrieval activates ruminative thinking; (b) functional avoidance, when episodic material threatens to cause affective disturbance; and (c) impairment in executive capacity and control that limits an individual's ability to remain focused on retrieval in the face of distraction.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that overgeneral autobiographical memory—recalling summarized categories rather than specific episodes—is reliably associated with depression and trauma-related disorders. It proposes the CaR-FA-X model, in which capture/rumination, functional avoidance, and impaired executive control jointly explain overgeneral retrieval and its downstream consequences.

Key findings

  • Overgeneral memory is consistently found in major depressive disorder: 11 studies showed significant depressed-versus-control differences with a mean effect size of Cohen’s d = 1.12 (IQR = 0.44); across 28 of 30 affective-disorder studies with sufficient data, mean d = 0.94 (IQR = 0.57).
  • Trauma history is also linked to overgeneral memory, with a mean effect size of d = 1.13 (IQR = 0.72) for studies showing a significant association, though mere trauma exposure is not sufficient; effects depend on trauma severity/prolongation and coping, and overgenerality is not found in general anxiety disorder, social phobia, or high trait anxiety.
  • Overgeneral memory is associated with impaired problem solving, difficulty imagining specific future events, and delayed recovery from affective episodes; it can be reduced by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and by retrieval-practice interventions, with mood improvement mediated by increased memory specificity.
  • The proposed CaR-FA-X account identifies three interacting mechanisms: capture and rumination by abstract self-related information, functional avoidance of aversive episodic detail, and reduced executive capacity/control that impairs inhibition during generative retrieval.

Methods

  • Narrative review of research on autobiographical memory specificity, primarily using the Autobiographical Memory Test (AMT) cue-word paradigm, with some studies using vignettes, scenarios, or free recall.
  • Synthesizes clinical and nonclinical samples across depression, suicidality, PTSD, trauma exposure, anxiety, and other disorders; Tables 1 and 2 summarize affective-disorder and trauma studies.
  • Main analysis is qualitative integration plus effect-size aggregation (Cohen’s d and interquartile ranges) where sufficient data were available, followed by elaboration of Conway and Pleydell-Pearce’s self-memory model into the CaR-FA-X framework.

Limitations

  • The paper states methodological limitations: studies vary in number and content of cues; not all control for IQ, education, semantic processing speed, or general memory ability; depression and trauma history are often confounded, with no 2 × 2 design; trauma is sometimes assessed retrospectively; and too few longitudinal studies exist to distinguish scarring from vulnerability.
  • The paper also states that many studies are cross-sectional, and even prospective studies often lack comprehensive assessment of prior trauma, prior depression, and other mediators such as rumination or executive functioning.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, its conclusions depend on the included studies and available effect-size data, and it cannot itself resolve unresolved causal questions about overgeneral memory and emotional disorder.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122

Cites

190 of 190 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 166 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Dalgleish, Spinks, Yiend, and Kuyken (2001) compared participants with seasonal affective disorder in the depression phase with control participants and did not find a difference in memory specificity.

    “Dalgleish, Spinks, Yiend, and Kuyken (2001) compared participants with SAD (in the depression phase) with control participants and did not find a difference in memory specificity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish, Spinks, Yiend, and Kuyken (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    Overgeneral memory occurs in samples with subclinical levels of depression (dysphoria).

    “and in samples with subclinical levels of depression (often referred to as dysphoria to distinguish it from more severe major depression described earlier; Goddard, Dritschel, & Burton, 1997; Moffitt, Singer, Nelligan, Carlson, & Vyse, 1994; Ramponi, Barnard, & Nimmo-Smith, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Goddard, Dritschel, & Burton, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Moffitt, Singer, Nelligan, Carlson, & Vyse, 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ramponi, Barnard, & Nimmo-Smith, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    Overgeneral memory occurs in currently euthymic patients with previous episodes of major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder.

    “in currently euthymic patients with previous episodes of MDD or bipolar disorder”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mackinger, Loschin, & Leibetseder, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mackinger, Pachinger, Leibetseder, & Fartacek, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Scott, Stanton, Garland, & Ferrier, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    Depressed women with a history of childhood sexual abuse retrieved significantly more overgeneral memories than depressed patients without such a history.

    “Comparing depressed women with and without a history of childhood sexual abuse, they found those who reported a history of abuse retrieved significantly more overgeneral memories than the depressed patients who did not report such a history.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kuyken & Brewin, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingreasoning

    Failures to replicate overgeneral memory in currently depressed patients are relatively rare.

    “Failures to replicate overgeneral memory in currently depressed patients are relatively rare.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 62
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 25

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The overall mean effect size for the 28 out of 30 studies in Table 1 for which sufficient data were available is 0.94 (IQR = 0.57), a large effect size.

    “The overall mean effect size for the 28 out of 30 studies in Table 1 for which sufficient data were available to compute Cohen's d statistic is 0.94 (IQR = 0.57)—a large effect size.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Eleven studies show a significant difference in memory specificity between depressed patients and matched controls, with a mean effect size (Cohen's d) of 1.12 (IQR = 0.44).

    “Eleven studies show a significant difference between depressed patients and matched controls, yielding a mean effect size (Cohen's d) of 1.12 (interquartile range [IQR] = 0.44).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The phenomenon of overgeneral memory occurs whether specificity or overgenerality is used as an outcome variable and whether studies examine depressed or suicidal patients or dysphoric nonclinical samples.

    “The phenomenon occurs whether specificity or overgenerality is used as an outcome variable and whether studies examine depressed or suicidal patients or dysphoric nonclinical samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Iqbal, Birchwood, Hemsley, Jackson, and Morris's (2004) study of postpsychotic depression found no overall main effect of overgeneral memory, though there was an effect for positive cue words.

    “Iqbal, Birchwood, Hemsley, Jackson, and Morris's (2004) study of postpsychotic depression found no overall main effect, though there was an effect for positive cue words.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Iqbal, Birchwood, Hemsley, Jackson, and Morris's (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    A history of traumatic experiences is closely linked to the occurrence of overgeneral memory deficits, and this occurs despite the fact that individuals are not being asked to retrieve memories related to their trauma.

    “The data suggest that a history of traumatic experiences is closely linked to the occurrence of overgeneral memory deficits, and this occurs despite the fact that individuals are not being asked to retrieve memories related to their trauma.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Unlike dysphoria, in which overgenerality is found, overgenerality is not found in individuals with high trait anxiety.

    “Unlike dysphoria, in which overgenerality is found, it is not found in individuals with high trait anxiety (Richards & Whittaker, 1990).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Richards & Whittaker, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Studies that have used different cuing procedures have reported large effect sizes (1.15 in Moore et al., 1988), suggesting that the phenomenon is relatively robust across different cuing procedures.

    “On the other hand, those studies that have used different cuing procedures (e.g., Moore et al., 1988, which used vignettes such as “Recall a time when a neighbour helped you with a practical problem”) have reported large effect sizes (1.15 in this study), suggesting that the phenomenon is relatively robust across different cuing procedures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moore et al., 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Overgeneral memory is associated with problems in imagining future events, with overgenerality for past events predicting nonspecificity in specifying future events.

    “(b) problems in imagining future events, with overgenerality for past events predicting nonspecificity in specifying future events (Williams et al., 1996)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al., 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In borderline personality disorder, although one early study found more overgeneral memory, other studies that have taken account of comorbid diagnoses have not found it.

    “In borderline personality disorder, although one early study found more overgeneral memory in such patients (Jones et al., 1999), other studies that have taken account of comorbid diagnoses have not found it (Arntz et al., 2002; Kremers et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jones et al., 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Arntz et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kremers et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Although the majority of studies have found evidence of an association between memory specificity and trauma, there are some that have failed to replicate this effect.

    “Although the majority of studies have found evidence of an association between memory specificity and trauma, there are some that have failed to replicate this effect (Arntz, Meeren, & Wessel, 2002; Kremers, Spinhoven, & Van der Does, 2004; Peeters, Wessel, Merckelbach, & Boon-Vermeeren, 2002; Wessel, Meeren, Peeters, Arntz, & Merckelbach, 2001; Wilhelm, McNally, Baer, & Florin, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Arntz, Meeren, & Wessel, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kremers, Spinhoven, & Van der Does, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Peeters, Wessel, Merckelbach, & Boon-Vermeeren, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Notwithstanding the methodological noise and variety across the studies, the effects are remarkably consistent and the effect sizes large.

    “However, what is clear from the data is that, notwithstanding the methodological noise and variety across the studies, the effects are remarkably consistent and the effect sizes large.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    We still cannot be sure the extent to which overgeneral memory prior to trauma renders people vulnerable for developing emotional problems following trauma experience or how much the trauma itself negatively affects memory specificity.

    “In conclusion, we still cannot be sure the extent to which overgeneral memory prior to trauma renders people vulnerable for developing emotional problems following trauma experience or how much the trauma itself negatively affects memory specificity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Raes et al. (2006) found a close association between autobiographical memory specificity and a measure of source memory, and both overgeneral memory and poor source memory were associated with rumination even after partialing out depression.

    “On the other hand, they did find, as predicted, a close association with a measure of source memory—that is, misassignment of correctly recognized words to the “wrong” (distractor) list—and that both overgeneral memory and poor source memory were associated with rumination (even after partialing out depression).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raes, Hermans, Williams, Demyttenaere, et al. (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Ramponi et al. (2004) found that specificity of autobiographical retrieval was positively related to remembering but not to knowing.

    “They found that specificity of autobiographical retrieval was found to be positively related to remembering (which requires recollection of contextual detail—the circumstances in which the word was previously seen) but not to knowing (which does not).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ramponi et al. (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The published studies have tended to examine either depression or patients with a history of trauma, and few studies have examined both.

    “A third possible methodological limitation is that the published studies have tended to examine either depression (see Table 1) or patients with a history of trauma (see Table 2). Authors naturally attribute differences found between the clinical and control groups to the variable of interest (depression or trauma), and few studies have examined both (though see Kuyken, Howell, & Dalgleish, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kuyken, Howell, & Dalgleish, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mean effect sizes for trauma studies that give sufficient information were 0.97 for positive and 0.82 for negative cues.

    “the mean effect sizes for those studies of trauma that give sufficient information to compute them were 0.97 for positive and 0.82 for negative cues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Inducing normal participants to repeatedly return to the same higher order theme during a category generation task increased overgeneral memory, relative to inducing category generation that shifts across themes, but this effect occurred only for self-related themes.

    “Second, Barnard, Watkins, and Ramponi (2006) showed that inducing normal participants to repeatedly return to the same higher order theme during a category generation task increased overgeneral memory, relative to inducing category generation that shifts across themes, but that this effect occurred only for self-related themes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barnard, Watkins, and Ramponi (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Studies that reported sufficient data to compute effect sizes for different cue-valence conditions show that differences between depressed and control participants in overgenerality to positive cues yield an effect size of 0.91, whereas that for negative cues is 0.48.

    “Overall, the studies that reported sufficient data to compute effect sizes for different cue-valence conditions show that differences between depressed and control participants in overgenerality to positive cues yield an effect size of 0.91, whereas that for negative cues is 0.48.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Of the 12 studies in Table 2, only 2 reported that overgenerality in response to negative cues was associated with trauma, 9 reported that trauma history is associated with both valences, and 1 reported that negative cues elicited more specific memories.

    “Of the 12 studies in Table 2, only 2 reported that overgenerality in response to negative cues was associated with trauma (Dalgleish et al., 2003; Peeters et al., 2002), 9 reported that trauma history is associated with both valences, and 1 reported that negative cues elicited more specific memories (Burnside et al., 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Peeters et al., 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Burnside et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Overgeneral errors correlated with tasks in which irrelevant material needed to be inhibited, such as the Emotional Stroop Test, and not with a task that merely requires sufficient executive capacity overall.

    “In particular, they were able to show that overgeneral errors correlated with tasks in which irrelevant material needed to be inhibited (the Emotional Stroop Test) and not with a task that merely requires sufficient executive capacity overall (a test of explicit memory of equivalent difficulty).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish et al. (in press)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In dysphoric individuals, levels of memory overgenerality correlated highly with levels of task errors on a range of executive paradigms with little or no relationship to autobiography, memory, or emotion, while in most cases being unrelated to overall performance levels on these tasks.

    “In a series of studies in dysphoric individuals, Dalgleish et al. demonstrated that this was indeed the case: Levels of memory overgenerality correlated highly with levels of task errors on a range of executive paradigms with little or no relationship to autobiography, memory, or emotion while, in most cases, being unrelated to overall performance levels on these tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish et al. (in press)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Random button pressing as a secondary task interfered with specific memory retrieval, but only when participants were attempting to recall memories to low imageable cues, which are more likely to require generative retrieval.

    “Williams et al. (2006, Study 3) required participants to retrieve autobiographical memories while performing random button pressing as a secondary task, as generation of a random pattern has been suggested as a paradigmatic example of a task requiring high levels of central executive control (Baddeley, 1996). They found that this task did interfere with specific memory retrieval, but only when”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al. (2006, Study 3)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Suicidal patients were generally poorer than controls at generating specific events that might happen to them in the future, and this difficulty was correlated with overgenerality in memory.

    “Williams et al. (1996) found that suicidal patients were generally poorer than controls at generating specific events that might happen to them in the future, and that this difficulty was correlated with overgenerality in memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al. (1996)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In elderly depressed patients, a 4-week intervention increasing the specificity of positive memories significantly reduced overgenerality, significantly reduced hopelessness and depression compared with a no-treatment control, and the effect on mood was mediated by increased specificity of memory.

    “The results showed that (a) the treatment significantly reduced overgenerality (particularly in response to neutral cues), (b) it significantly reduced hopelessness and depression (compared with a no-treatment control), and (c) the effect on mood was mediated by the increased specificity of memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Serrano, Latorre, Gatz, and Rodriguez (2004)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The above studies have found significant associations between memory specificity and both the number of means reported and overall effectiveness.

    “The above studies have found significant associations between memory specificity and both of these measures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Participants induced to be categorical in their retrieval for past events generated less specific future events, while participants induced to be specific produced more specific future events.

    “Results showed that participants who were induced to be categorical in their retrieval for past events in the study phase of the experiment generated less specific future events during the test phase. Participants who were induced to be specific in their memory in the study phase produced more specific future events in the test phase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams et al. (1996)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Depression is associated with intrusive and avoidance symptomatology regarding prior distressing life events, with studies revealing few differences between clinically depressed individuals and those with PTSD in the nature of these symptoms.

    “In addition, there is an increasing body of evidence to suggest that depression is associated with intrusive and avoidance symptomatology regarding prior distressing life events (Dalgleish & Power, 2004), with studies revealing few differences between clinically depressed individuals and those with PTSD in terms of the nature of these symptoms (Reynolds & Brewin, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish & Power, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Reynolds & Brewin, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The studies that failed to replicate the trauma-memory specificity association either involved low levels of trauma or focused on depression or personality disorders rather than trauma as their primary research question.

    “However, these studies either involved low levels of trauma or focused on depression or personality disorders rather than trauma as their primary research question.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    If there is an encoding failure, ESK will be impoverished in individuals with depression (and other conditions) so that any preponderance of categorical responses to word cues will arise because autobiographical information is more likely to be encoded in abstracted ways in these groups.

    “If there is an encoding failure, ESK will be impoverished in individuals with depression (and other conditions) so that any preponderance of categorical responses to word cues will arise because autobiographical information is more likely to be encoded in abstracted ways in these groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    If environmental adversity is found to have long-term impact on an individual, then it can do so only by producing either long-term changes in the environment or long-term changes in the individual.

    “If environmental adversity is found to have long-term impact on an individual, then it can do so only by producing either long-term changes in the environment or long-term changes in the individual.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Everyone needs access to both episodic information and general summary information to navigate successfully through the interpersonal and instrumental demands of daily living.

    “Everyone needs access to both episodic information and general summary information to navigate successfully through the interpersonal and instrumental demands of daily living.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) described autobiographical memories as transitory dynamic mental constructions generated from an underlying knowledge base.

    “Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) described autobiographical memories as “transitory dynamic mental constructions generated from an underlying knowledge base” (p. 261).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Autobiographical memories are stored as records of events and these records are organized in hierarchies leading from general to more specific event representations.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Current models of PTSD converge on the view that intrusive images or memories and flashbacks arise from the relatively automatic activation of mnemonic material related to the trauma.

    “These models converge on the view that intrusive images or memories and flashbacks arise from the relatively automatic activation of mnemonic material related to the trauma”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Brewin, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Brewin, Dalgleish, & Joseph, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ehlers & Clark, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overgenerality in memory may be just such a long-term effect.

    “Overgenerality in memory may be just such a long-term effect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's model includes three levels of representation within the autobiographical knowledge base: lifetime periods, general event descriptions, and event-specific knowledge.

    “Their model includes three levels of representation within the autobiographical knowledge base (see Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: General event representations are the preferred or default level of access into the autobiographical memory knowledge base.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The recollection of general descriptions may produce less affect than the recollection of specific episodic memories, thus enabling current goal pursuit to be maintained in the face of potential deflection.

    “Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's (2000) explanation of overgeneral memory is that the recollection of general descriptions may produce less affect than the recollection of specific episodic memories, thus enabling current goal pursuit to be maintained in the face of potential deflection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Descriptions theory conceptualizes voluntary retrieval as a process in which some information about a target item is used to construct a description of the item and this description is used in attempts to recover new fragments of information.

    “This theory conceptualizes voluntary retrieval as “a process in which some information about a target item is used to construct a description of the item and this description is used in attempts to recover new fragments of information” (M. D. Williams & Hollan, 1981, p. 87).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M. D. Williams & Hollan, 1981

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Autobiographical memories are stored as records of events and these records are organized in hierarchies leading from general to more specific event representations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Overgenerality in autobiographical memory is likely related in some cases to general memory deficits, but it is not wholly explained by such deficits; it is associated with those aspects of memory that depend on recalling contextual detail.

    “We conclude that although overgenerality in autobiographical memory is likely related in some cases to general memory deficits, it is not wholly explained by such deficits. It is associated with those aspects of memory that depend on recalling contextual detail.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    For a successful restaurant experience, we need to have access both to our general restaurant scripts and to the episodic memories, the 'tags' that differentiate this one from others and allow us to take account of any particular peculiarities.

    “For a successful restaurant experience, we need to have access both to our general restaurant scripts and to the episodic memories, the “tags” that differentiate this one from others and allow us to take account of any particular peculiarities (Schank & Abelson, 1977).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schank & Abelson, 1977

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The distinction between general and specific event representations is not new.

    “The distinction between general and specific event representations is not new (see Barsalou, 1988; Neisser, 1986; Nelson, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Barsalou, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Neisser, 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Nelson, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Autobiographical memories are stored as records of events and these records are organized in hierarchies leading from general to more specific event representations.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Recent models stress the role of central executive control in the activation and inhibition of memory components as well as the importance of the current motivations and goal structure of the individual.

    “Recent models consequently stress the role of central executive control in the activation and inhibition of memory components as well as the importance of the current motivations and goal structure of the individual.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Event-specific knowledge consists primarily of more concrete sensory-perceptual aspects of unique events, often including visual imagery rather than abstract, conceptual, verbal summaries of past experience.

    “ESK differs from general event and lifetime period representations in that it consists primarily of more concrete sensory–perceptual aspects of unique events, often including visual imagery rather than abstract, conceptual, verbal summaries of past experience.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: General event representations are the preferred or default level of access into the autobiographical memory knowledge base.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Mnemonic interlock refers to the suggestion that if early truncation of the search process at the intermediate description level is followed by further abortive attempts at retrieval, the conceptual network of intermediate descriptions will become increasingly elaborated.

    “Mnemonic interlock refers to the suggestion that if early truncation of the search process at the intermediate description level is followed by further abortive attempts at retrieval, the conceptual network of intermediate descriptions will become increasingly elaborated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Williams, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Truncated search (dysfacilitation of the retrieval process) underlies the retrieval of overgeneral memories.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In three studies examining patients in remission compared with healthy controls, ex-patients remained more overgeneral overall, but in each study responses to positive cues were relatively less overgeneral than responses to negative cues.

    “In each case, ex-patients remained more overgeneral overall, but in each study, responses to positive cues were relatively less overgeneral than responses to negative cues (effect sizes of 0.63 vs. 1.21, 0.72 vs. 1.38, and 0.75 vs. 1.10 for positive vs. negative cues, respectively)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mackinger, Loschin, & Leibetseder, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Mackinger, Pachinger, et al., 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Williams & Dritschel, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A clear pattern has emerged, showing that various types of trauma are associated with a reduction in specificity of autobiographical memory, making the functional avoidance account of overgeneral memory a plausible one.

    “A clear pattern has emerged, showing that various types of trauma are associated with a reduction in specificity of autobiographical memory, making the functional avoidance account of overgeneral memory a plausible one.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The less specific the participant was, the higher were the scores on a range of avoidance questionnaires, demonstrated for social behavioral avoidance, experiential avoidance, and thought suppression.

    “The less specific the participant was, the higher were the scores on a range of avoidance questionnaires. This was demonstrated for a variety of coping behaviors, ranging from social behavioral avoidance (Cognitive Behavioural Avoidance Scale; Ottenbreit & Dobson, 2004) and experiential avoidance (Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; Hayes et al., in press) to thought suppression (White Bear Suppr”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ottenbreit & Dobson, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hayes et al., in press

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wegner & Zanakos, 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Raes, Hermans, Williams, and Eelen (2006) replicated these results and additionally showed that participants who were low in specificity tended to be high repressors.

    “Raes, Hermans, Williams, and Eelen (2006) replicated these results and additionally showed that participants who were low in specificity tended to be high repressors”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raes, Hermans, Williams, and Eelen (2006)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The predominance of conceptual self-relevant information in the early stages of memory search may lead to difficulties with retrieval of specific memories in individuals who possess highly activated or elaborated repertoires of emotion-related self-representations, and in individuals prone to rumination.

    “There is some evidence to suggest that this predominance of conceptual self-relevant information in the early stages of memory search may lead to difficulties with the retrieval of specific memories in two circumstances: first, in individuals who possess highly activated or elaborated repertoires of emotion-related self-representations, and second, in individuals prone to rumination”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A meta-analysis of 14 studies concluded that depressed/traumatized patients are overgeneral in their memories following both positive and negative cues, with overgenerality for positive and negative memories being highly intercorrelated.

    “a meta-analysis of 14 studies concluded that such patients are overgeneral in their memories following both positive and negative cues, with overgenerality for positive and negative memories being highly intercorrelated (van Vreeswijk & de Wilde, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van Vreeswijk & de Wilde, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If overgeneral memory arises from a "stop" rule introduced at a point in the retrieval search where fragments of unpleasant memories begin to be accessed, then overgenerality would be more likely to be shown in response to negative cues than positive cues.

    “If overgeneral memory arises from a “stop” rule introduced at a point in the retrieval search where fragments of unpleasant memories begin to be accessed, then we might expect that such overgenerality would be more likely to be shown in response to negative cues than positive cues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Dysfacilitation as an avoidant coping style is a process shaped by contingencies and takes some time to develop.

    “We suggest that dysfacilitation as an avoidant coping style is a process that is shaped by contingencies and takes some time to develop.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's model assumes that generative retrieval, as with all effortful cognitive tasks, requires the use of limited executive resources.

    “Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's (2000) model assumes that generative retrieval (as with all effortful cognitive tasks) requires the use of limited executive resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Conway and Pleydell-Pearce model suggests that capacity deficits may affect several stages of generative retrieval, including defining and holding a retrieval model in working memory, inhibiting irrelevant autobiographical knowledge during search, and holding a final search result in working memory.

    “The model suggests that capacity deficits may affect several stages of generative retrieval, including the definition and holding in working memory of a retrieval model, the control processes that inhibit irrelevant autobiographical knowledge during the search (thus avoiding capture errors, addressed in the previous section), and the holding in working memory of a final search result, all of which”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway and Pleydell-Pearce's (2000)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A positive cue word could signal to a depressed person the absence of a personally meaningful state and, in turn, activate further rumination.

    “Within this framework, as we have seen, a positive cue word could signal to a depressed person the absence of a personally meaningful state and, in turn, activate further rumination.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both the overriding of ongoing processing by trauma-related intrusions and any effortful attempts to control such experiences are likely to lead to a diminution of executive resources to apply to other tasks.

    “Both the overriding of ongoing processing by trauma-related intrusions and any effortful attempts to control such experiences are likely to lead to a diminution of executive resources to apply to other tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Although reductions in processing capacities may affect all subprocesses of generative retrieval, failures of inhibitory control are most pronounced.

    “Although reductions in processing capacities may affect all of these subprocesses, failures of inhibitory control are most pronounced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Each of the components of the CaR-FA-X account has evidence consistent with it.

    “Each of the components of the CaR-FA-X account has evidence consistent with it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Traumatized individuals report frequent intrusive thoughts, images, nightmares, and flashbacks regarding their trauma as well as consequent attempts to prevent these experiences using strategies such as avoidance of trauma reminders.

    “This is perhaps unsurprising, given that traumatized individuals report frequent intrusive thoughts, images, nightmares, and flashbacks regarding their trauma as well as consequent attempts to prevent these experiences using a range of strategies, such as avoidance of trauma reminders (see Dalgleish, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Categorical memory may represent truncated hierarchical search, exacerbated by capture by conceptual structures; these impairments are compounded by reduced processing resources and by the continuing impact of early trauma and adversity on the self-memory system.

    “Thus, categorical memory may represent truncated hierarchical search, exacerbated by capture by conceptual structures. These impairments are themselves compounded by reduced processing resources and by the continuing impact of early trauma and adversity on the self-memory system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Autobiographical events can also be recollected spontaneously, and such directly retrieved memories are more often specific in nature.

    “autobiographical events can also be recollected spontaneously. Such directly retrieved memories are more often specific in nature (Berntsen & Hall, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Berntsen & Hall, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ellis's resource allocation model proposed that the profile of cognitive performance in depressed individuals could be broadly explained by reduced executive resources.

    “Ellis (e.g., Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988), in his resource allocation model of cognitive processing in depression, proposed that the profile of cognitive performance in depressed individuals could be broadly explained by the notion of reduced executive resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ellis & Ashbrook, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Some individuals who have experienced trauma are additionally likely to truncate the search process if episodic knowledge tends to evoke highly negative affect; in these cases, stopping short of episodic retrieval is functional and is negatively reinforced by the nonoccurrence of expected aversive consequences.

    “We have also seen that in addition to the difficulty in generative retrieval, some individuals (those who have experienced trauma such as road traffic accidents) are additionally likely to truncate the search process if episodic knowledge tends to evoke highly negative affect. In these cases, stopping short of episodic retrieval is functional (Raes et al., 2003) and is negatively reinforced by the”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Raes et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Hertel proposed that depressed individuals lacked initiative when performing cognitive tasks, such that performance deficits could be overcome by providing information about the optimal way to complete a given task.

    “Hertel (e.g., Hertel & Hardin, 1990) expanded on this resource allocation model view and proposed that depressed individuals lacked initiative when performing cognitive tasks, such that performance deficits could be overcome by providing the depressed individuals with information about the optimal way to complete a given task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hertel & Hardin, 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Depressed individuals have increased access to conceptual self-relevant information such as negative self-schemas, and rumination leads to chronic activation of such generalized mental representations.

    “Depressed individuals have increased access to conceptual self-relevant information (negative self-schemas such as “I am worthless and inadequate”; Segal, Williams, Teasdale, & Gemar, 1996), and rumination leads to chronic activation of such generalized mental representations (“Why do I have problems other people don't have?”; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Segal, Williams, Teasdale, & Gemar, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The effects of trauma on reducing available executive resources will mean that it is more difficult to inhibit interfering cognitive information during generative retrieval, thus resulting in that information forming the basis of capture errors.

    “First, the effects of trauma on reducing available executive resources (discussed above) will mean that it is more difficult to inhibit interfering cognitive information during the generative retrieval process, thus resulting in that information forming the basis of capture errors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Generative retrieval requires processing capacity for setting up a retrieval model and comparing it with retrieved information, and it critically requires inhibition of irrelevant information to protect against interference.

    “Generative retrieval requires processing capacity for both the setting up of a retrieval model and its comparison with retrieved information; it also critically requires the inhibition of irrelevant information to protect against interference.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Some trauma gives rise to a large number of long-lasting intrusions that reduce available resources for autobiographical memory search, thus further compounding the problem.

    “In addition, some trauma gives rise to a large number of long-lasting intrusions that reduce available resources for autobiographical memory search, thus further compounding the problem.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Executive resources play an important role in the generative retrieval of specific autobiographical memories, and deficient resources reduce the amount of cognitive control that is possible.

    “The data suggest that executive resources play an important role in the generative retrieval of specific autobiographical memories and that deficient resources reduce the amount of cognitive control that is possible.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Zacks and Hasher proposed that depressed individuals have difficulties inhibiting interfering cognitive material when seeking to perform cognitive tasks.

    “Finally, Zacks and Hasher (1994) proposed that depressed individuals have difficulties inhibiting interfering cognitive material when seeking to perform cognitive tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zacks and Hasher (1994)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reduced executive capacity and diminished cognitive control will compound a tendency to become captured by abstract conceptual self-representations and will diminish strategic task-oriented processing.

    “Reduced executive capacity and diminished cognitive control will therefore compound a tendency to become captured by abstract conceptual self-representations and will diminish strategic task-oriented processing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    A history of trauma may lead to overgenerality not only because of passive avoidance of emotion-related ESK but because intrusion of traumatic information reduces available executive resources.

    “In summary, a history of trauma may lead to overgenerality not only because of passive avoidance of emotion-related ESK but because intrusion of traumatic information reduces available executive resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The experience of trauma is likely to lead to relatively accessible negative self-schemas; such schemas will capture cognitive processing during generative retrieval in particular autobiographical domains, leading to overgeneral responses as capture errors.

    “Second, the experience of trauma is itself likely to lead to relatively accessible negative self-schemas (Dalgleish, 2004; Ehlers & Clark, 2000). Such schemas will also “capture” cognitive processing during generative retrieval in particular autobiographical domains, leading to overgeneral responses as capture errors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dalgleish, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ehlers & Clark, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Trauma may affect executive capacity, the probability of capture errors, and depression.

    “In particular, we show that trauma may affect (a) executive capacity, (b) the probability of capture errors, and (c) depression.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    All three mechanisms are likely to contribute both to overgenerality in autobiographical memory and, independently, to those aspects of cognitive functioning that have been found to be affected by such overgenerality: problem solving, imagining the future, and persistence of emotional disturbance.

    “In the light of these overlaps both in clinical phenomenology and in underlying mechanisms, we suggest that all three mechanisms are likely to contribute both to overgenerality in autobiographical memory and, independently, to those aspects of cognitive functioning that have been found to be affected by such overgenerality (problem solving, imagining the future, and persistence of emotional”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Overgenerality in memory is part of the causal sequence in bringing about consequences such as problem solving, imagining the future, and persistence of emotional disturbance.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Methodological issues limit the conclusions that can be made from many of the studies taken individually.

    “We have seen that there are a number of methodological issues that limit the conclusions that can be made from many of the studies taken individually.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The ability to anticipate potential impending events and experiences is critical for the day-to-day planning of activities.

    “This is clearly important, as the ability to anticipate potential impending events and experiences is critical for the day-to-day planning of activities (Ajzen, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ajzen, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Because these studies are correlational, it remains possible that both specificity of autobiographical memories and quality of problem-solving performance might be determined by third factors; the apparent effect of overgeneral memory on problem solving may be mediated by rumination.

    “However, because these studies are correlational, it remains possible that both specificity of autobiographical memories and quality of problem-solving performance might be determined by third factors. For example, Watkins and Baracaia (2002) have found that rumination impairs problem solving in depression, and so the apparent effect of overgeneral memory on problem solving may be mediated by rum”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Watkins and Baracaia (2002)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Taken together, these studies provide relatively strong evidence that overgeneral memory, along with other variables, is an important causal factor in maintaining depression and that modifying it may have beneficial consequences.

    “Taken together, these studies provide relatively strong evidence that overgeneral memory, along with other variables, is an important causal factor in maintaining depression and that modifying it may have beneficial consequences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The phenomenon of overgeneral memory ranks alongside other memory deficits known for many years to be associated with depression but goes beyond these in several ways.

    “The phenomenon of overgeneral memory ranks alongside other memory deficits known for many years to be associated with depression but goes beyond these in several ways.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The MEPS is a well-established measure of social problem solving that reliably discriminates between groups that have been determined to differ in actual real-life problem solving.

    “Nonetheless, the MEPS is a well-established measure of social problem solving that reliably discriminates between groups that have been determined to differ in actual real-life problem solving (e.g., depressed patients vs. controls; Marx, Williams, & Claridge, 1992).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marx, Williams, & Claridge, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overgeneral memory is a reliable feature of depression and PTSD and can be found in other, though not all, emotional disorders.

    “This phenomenon is a reliable feature of these diagnostic groups and can be found in other (though not all) emotional disorders.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Capture errors may occur whenever information needed for the memory search matches information that is self-schematic; when individuals then ruminate, reduced capacity/control will reduce the ability to inhibit further task-irrelevant information.

    “In summary, capture errors may occur whenever information needed for the memory search matches information that is self-schematic. Whenever individuals then ruminate about what has happened to them, reduced capacity/control will reduce the ability to inhibit further task-irrelevant information.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
82 of 82

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Autobiographical memories are stored as records of events and these records are organized in hierarchies leading from general to more specific event representations.

    “An underlying assumption of descriptions theory is that autobiographical memories are stored as records of events and that these records are organized in hierarchies leading from general to more specific event representations.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    General event representations are the preferred or default level of access into the autobiographical memory knowledge base.

    “general event representations (assumed to be the preferred or default level of access into the autobiographical memory knowledge base)”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Supervisory executive processes are required to inhibit activation of irrelevant representations, allowing the system to settle into a stable state.

    “it is assumed that supervisory executive processes are required to inhibit activation of irrelevant representations, allowing the system to settle into a stable state.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Ongoing experience that is not relevant to active goals is unlikely to be integrated into the autobiographical knowledge base.

    “Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) assume that ongoing experience that is not relevant to active goals is unlikely to be integrated into the autobiographical knowledge base.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Experiences that are relevant to ongoing goal processing but challenge self-coherence to an unacceptable degree are also unlikely to be integrated into the long-term self.

    “Similarly, experiences that are relevant to ongoing goal processing but challenge self-coherence to an unacceptable degree are also unlikely to be integrated into the long-term self”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Truncated search (dysfacilitation of the retrieval process) underlies the retrieval of overgeneral memories.

    “This truncated search, called by Conway and Pleydell-Pearce a dysfacilitation of the retrieval process, is assumed to underlie the retrieval of overgeneral memories.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    ESK are represented primarily in analogue form and usually in visual imagery.

    “these are assumed to be represented primarily in analogue form and usually in visual imagery.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Truncated search represents a passive avoidance reaction that arises because representations of past trauma and adversity, encoded within the episodic memory system, create negative affect as the retrieval search begins to elicit perceptual–sensory fragments of aversive events.

    “Conway and Pleydell-Pearce assume, therefore, that truncated search represents a passive avoidance reaction that arises because representations of past trauma and adversity, encoded within the episodic memory system, create negative affect as the retrieval search begins to elicit perceptual–sensory fragments of aversive events”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Anxious patients are, in general, concerned with possible future threats, most often physical harm to self or others from external sources or from imminent collapse or illness, rather than with self-referential implications of their past.

    “Anxious patients are, in general, concerned with possible future threats, most often physical harm to self or others from external sources or from imminent collapse or illness, rather than with self-referential implications of their past.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Overgenerality in memory is part of the causal sequence in bringing about consequences such as problem solving, imagining the future, and persistence of emotional disturbance.

    “However, this raises the question of whether overgenerality in memory is part of the causal sequence in bringing about such consequences, as we have assumed, or is a mere epiphenomenon.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Generic retrieval is a normal part of development, and its retention as one possible mode of retrieval is required as part of normal memory function.

    “Given that generic retrieval is a normal part of development, and its retention as one possible mode of retrieval is required as part of normal memory function (e.g., as an intermediate stage in the recollection of specific episodes and as the target of retrieval for scriptlike situations)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Intermediate descriptions are required for voluntary retrieval.

    “the intermediate descriptions that are required for voluntary retrieval”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reduced executive control results in a failure to inhibit competing information.

    “Reduced executive control results in a failure to inhibit competing information.”
13 of 13

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. de Decker A. (2001). The specificity of the autobiographical memory retrieval style in adolescents with a history of trauma. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
  2. Ellis H. C., & Ashbrook P. W. (1988). Resource allocation model of the effects of depressed mood states on memory. In Fiedler K. & Forgas J. (Eds.), Affect, cognition and social behavior (pp. 25– 43). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Hogrefe.
  3. Martin L. L., & Tesser A. (1996). Some ruminative thoughts. In. R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Ruminative thoughts (pp. 1–47). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  4. Winthorpe C., & Rabbitt P. A. (1988). Working memory capacity, IQ, age, and the ability to recount autobiographical events. In Gruneberg M. M., Morris P. E., & Sykes R. N. (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research and issues II (pp. 175– 179). Chichester, England: Wiley.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Williams, J. M. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., & Dalgleish, T.
Affiliations
  • University of Oxford (GB)
  • KU Leuven (BE)
  • MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Bulletin
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2007-01
Volume
133
Issue
1
Pages
122-148
ISSN
  • 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1455
DOI
10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122
PMC
PMC2834574
OpenAlex
W1992938996
Semantic Scholar
e0b29a8ec9dad5f06a1ced21555f0b59ca14fbd2
Cited by
1,688
References
188
Citations by year
2026: 60 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 92 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 95 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 101 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 93 · 2016: 106 · 2015: 109 · 2014: 88 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 86
FWCI
106.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
Wellcome Trust (067797)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords
autobiographical memory, overgeneral memory, emotional disorders, rumination, executive function, memory specificity, mood disorders
MeSH terms
Autobiographies as Topic, Cues, Humans, Memory, Problem Solving, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Mood Disorders

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review