Cited by 261Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research TopicsIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

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Brooding and reflection as subtypes of rumination: evidence from confirmatory factor analysis in nonclinical samples using the dutch ruminative response scale.

Schoofs, Hanne, Hermans, Dirk, Raes, Filip·2010·Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment

DOI 10.1007/s10862-010-9182-9

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Evaluating the Fit of Structural Equation Models: Tests of Significance and Descriptive Goodness-of-Fit Measures
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003) · Department of Psychology - University of Koblenz-Landau · doi:10.23668/psycharchives.12784 · Cited by 8,975
Rethinking rumination
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x · Cited by 5,172
Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6 · Cited by 5,099 · cited 1×
“The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ; Meyer et al. 1990) is a 16-item questionnaire measuring the tendency to worry.”
Method
Model Selection and Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC): The General Theory and its Analytical Extensions
Bozdogan, H. (1987) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294361 · Cited by 4,468
Rumination reconsidered: a psychometric analysis.
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1023910315561 · Cited by 3,808
A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115 · Cited by 3,276
Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought
Watkins, E. R. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.163 · Cited by 2,421
Autobiographical memory specificity and emotional disorder.
Williams, J. M. G., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., Herman, D., Raes, F., Watkins, E., & Dalgleish, T. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.122 · Cited by 1,688 · cited 1×
“Both the original WBSI and the Dutch version which we used in the present study (Muris et al. 1996) show good internal and temporal reliability as well as concurrent validity (Muris and Merckelbach 1997; Muris et al. 1996; Van den Hout et al. 1996; Wegner and Zanakos 1994 ).”
MethodSelf-citation
Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection.
Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.284 · Cited by 1,646
Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061 · Cited by 1,543

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“, 2003), has been identified as a particularly maladaptive form of RNT, and it has been largely associated with the onset of depressive symptoms (Nolen‐Hoeksema et al., 2008; Treynor et al. 2003; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
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Self-citation
How do Rumination and Social Problem Solving Intensify Depression? A Longitudinal Study
Hasegawa, A., Kunisato, Y., Morimoto, H., Nishimura, H., & Matsuda, Y. (2017) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-017-0272-4 · Cited by 46
“…to 1 year later, whereas reflection was associated with less depression or showed no such association, indicating that brooding may represent a more maladaptive aspect of rumination than reflection (Treynor et al. 2003; Pearson et al. 2010; Schoofs et al. 2010; but see Hasegawa et al. 2015a).”
BackgroundMethod
How brooding minds inhibit negative material: An event-related fMRI study
Vanderhasselt, M., Baeken, C., Schuerbeek, P. V., Luypaert, R., Mey, J. D., & Raedt, R. D. (2013) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2013.01.007 · Cited by 40
“Moreover, the mean brooding and reflection scores of this sample are within the range of one standard deviation from the mean scores of brooding and reflection of a study using two large samples (N > 400) of nonclinical volunteers (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
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Self-citation
Measuring regulation in the here and now: The development and validation of the State Emotion Regulation Inventory (SERI).
Katz, B. A., Lustig, N., Assis, Y., & Yovel, I. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000420 · Cited by 54
Attentional control, rumination and recurrence of depression
Figueroa, C. A., DeJong, H., Mocking, R. J. T., Fox, E., Rive, M. M., Schene, A. H., Stein, A. L., & Ruhé, H. G. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.05.072 · Cited by 45
Vulnerability for new episodes in recurrent major depressive disorder: protocol for the longitudinal DELTA-neuroimaging cohort study
Mocking, R. J. T., Figueroa, C. A., Rive, M. M., Geugies, H., Servaas, M. N., Assies, J., Koeter, M. W. J., Vaz, F. M., Wichers, M., van Straalen, J. P., et al. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009510 · Cited by 32
Brooding and reflecting in an interpersonal context
Bastin, M., Bijttebier, P., Raes, F., & Vasey, M. W. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.062 · Cited by 51
Self-citation
Interpretation bias characterizes trait rumination.
Mor, N., Hertel, P. T., Ngo, T., Shachar, T., & Redak, S. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.08.002 · Cited by 38
Racism's effect on depressive symptoms: Examining perseverative cognition and Black Lives Matter activism as moderators.
Watson-Singleton, N. N., Mekawi, Y., Wilkins, K. V., & Jatta, I. (2020) · Journal of counseling and psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000436 · Cited by 37
Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Version of the 10-Item Ruminative Response Scale Among Undergraduates and Depressive Patients
He, J., Liu, Y., Chang, C., Fang, S., Wang, X., & Yao, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.626859 · Cited by 61
“76) and good validity in the USA (13, 14), Japan (8), Korea (15), Dutch (16), Brazil (17), France (18), and Spain (19), and in clinical and non-clinical samples (20).”
Background
Rumination and self-reflection in stress narratives and relations to psychological functioning
Marin, K. A., & Rotondo, E. K. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1124122 · Cited by 44
“…Introduction, the coding scheme was adapted from existing theory on rumination (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008; O’Connor & Noyce, 2008; Schoofs et al., 2010; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999; Treynor et al., 2003) and narrative meaning making (Greenhoot & McLean, 2013; McLean, 2005).”
Method
Psychometric properties of the 10-item ruminative response scale in Chinese university students
Lei, X., Zhong, M., Liu, Y., Xi, C., Ling, Y., Zhu, X., Yao, S., & Yi, J. (2017) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1318-y · Cited by 50
Rumination and Performance in Dynamic, Team Sport
Roy, M. M., Memmert, D., Frees, A., Radzevick, J. R., Pretz, J. E., & Noël, B. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02016 · Cited by 47
“Reflective rumination involves repeatedly thinking about a negative situation in a manner that is more contemplative and active in an attempt to assess and solve the problem (Roberts et al., 1998; Treynor et al., 2003; Burwell and Shirk, 2007; Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Rumination and Excessive Reassurance Seeking: Mediators of the Relationship Between Social Anxiety and Depression?
Grant, D. M., Judah, M. R., Mills, A. C., Lechner, W. V., Davidson, C. L., & Wingate, L. R. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9399-5 · Cited by 42
“discriminant validity of its subscales (Schoofs et al. 2010).”
Body image and depression in endometriosis: Examining self-esteem and rumination as mediators.
Pehlivan, M. J., Sherman, K., Wuthrich, V., Horn, M., Basson, M., & Duckworth, T. (2022) · Body image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2022.10.012 · Cited by 34
The comorbidity between autism spectrum disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder is mediated by brooding rumination
Golan, O., Haruvi-Lamdan, N., Laor, N., & Horesh, D. (2021) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613211035240 · Cited by 34
“This is in line with other studies, which have failed to find an association between reflection and psychopathology (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Result
The form and function of depressive rumination
Bartošková, M., Ševčíková, M., Durisko, Z., Maslej, M. M., Barbic, S. P., Preiss, M., & Andrews, P. W. (2018) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.01.005 · Cited by 44
Predictors of rumination and co-rumination: the role of attachment dimensions, self-compassion and self-esteem
Bugay-Sökmez, A., Manuoğlu, E., Coşkun, M., & Sümer, N. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01799-0 · Cited by 42
Co-Brooding and Co-Reflection as Differential Predictors of Depressive Symptoms and Friendship Quality in Adolescents: Investigating the Moderating Role of Gender
Bastin, M., Vanhalst, J., Raes, F., & Bijttebier, P. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0746-9 · Cited by 44
“Brooding has consistently been found to be maladaptive, being associated with higher depressive symptoms (e.g., Burwell and Shirk 2007; Schoofs et al. 2010), whereas reflection has been found to be rather benign or even adaptive in the context of depressive symptoms (e.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Dampening and brooding jointly link temperament with depressive symptoms: A prospective study
Hudson, M. R., Harding, K., & Mezulis, A. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.04.025 · Cited by 32
Exploring the influence of core-self evaluations, situational factors, and coping on nurse burnout: A cross-sectional survey study
Geuens, N., Verheyen, H., Vlerick, P., Bogaert, P. V., & Franck, E. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230883 · Cited by 31
“However, reflection is also not entirely harmless [29].”
Background
Intolerance of uncertainty fuels depressive symptoms through rumination: Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Huang, V., Yu, M., Carleton, R. N., & Beshai, S. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224865 · Cited by 50
“The available results suggest that brooding and reflection may exert differential effects on depression, wherein brooding is more related to the negative outcomes of rumination and the risk of the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms [22].”
Background
Can Concreteness Training Alone Reduce Depressive Symptoms? A Randomized Pilot Study Using an Internet-Delivered Protocol
Mogoașe, C., Brailean, A., & David, D. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9514-z · Cited by 31
“Previous research has reported adequate psychometric properties for this instrument (e.g., Schoofs et al. 2010).”
Method
Factor Structure of the Ruminative Responses Scale
Griffith, J. W., & Raes, F. (2014) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000231 · Cited by 43
“75 for brooding and reflection, respectively (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
MethodSelf-citation
Disruption to well-being activities and depressive symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediational role of social connectedness and rumination
McMahon, G. E., Douglas, A., Casey, K., & Ahern, E. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.142 · Cited by 30
Unpacking cognitive emotion regulation in eating disorder psychopathology: The differential relationships between rumination, thought suppression, and eating disorder symptoms among men and women.
Smith, K. E., Mason, T. B., Anderson, N. L., & Lavender, J. M. (2019) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2019.01.003 · Cited by 29
Effects of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy on a Behavioural Measure of Rumination in Patients with Chronic, Treatment-Resistant Depression
Cladder-Micus, M. B., Becker, E. S., Spijker, J., Speckens, A. E. M., & Vrijsen, J. N. (2019) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-019-09997-8 · Cited by 28
Ruminative Inertia and Its Association With Current Severity and Lifetime Course of Depression
Bean, C. A. L., Heggeness, L. F., Kalmbach, D. A., & Ciesla, J. A. (2020) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702620949174 · Cited by 34
Longitudinal Predictions of the Brooding and Reflection Subscales of the Japanese Ruminative Responses Scale for Depression
Hasegawa, A., Koda, M., Kondo, T., Hattori, Y., & Kawaguchi, J. (2013) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/02.15.pr0.113x24z5 · Cited by 27
The relative importance of rumination, experiential avoidance and mindfulness as predictors of depressive symptoms
Schut, D. M., & Boelen, P. A. (2016) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2016.11.008 · Cited by 33
“The Dutch 10-item version of the RRS was used for which adequate psychometric properties have been reported (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Method
Group metacognitive therapy for adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders: A pilot study
Thorslund, J., McEvoy, P. M., & Anderson, R. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22914 · Cited by 29
A non-linear relationship between the cumulative exposure to occupational stressors and nurses’ burnout and the potentially emotion regulation factors
Sun, J.-W., Lin, P., Zhang, H., Li, J.-H., & Cao, F. (2018) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2017.1385740 · Cited by 26
“that supports the multidimensional nature of rumination (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Background
Examining cognitive performance: Do perfectionism and rumination matter?
Desnoyers, A., & Arpin-Cribbie, C. A. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.050 · Cited by 26
Difficulty in updating positive beliefs about negative cognition is associated with increased depressed mood.
Takano, K., Grieken, J. V., & Raes, F. (2019) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.02.001 · Cited by 25
Self-citation
Depressive symptoms moderate the effects of a self-discrepancy induction on overgeneral autobiographical memory
Smets, J., Griffith, J. W., Wessel, I., Walschaerts, D., & Raes, F. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.756039 · Cited by 26
“, happy, social, friendly; see Schoofs et al., 2012, for a detailed description). These positive words were used because they resemble characteristics of the ideal self (Schoofs et al., 2012). In this way our induction combined with the content of the AMT would enhance selfdiscrepancies. The cues were read aloud one b…”
MethodSelf-citation
Experiential acceptance and trait‐mindfulness as predictors of analogue post‐traumatic stress.
Boelen, P. A., & Lenferink, L. I. M. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12138 · Cited by 24
Latent class analysis of indicators of intolerance of uncertainty
Boelen, P. A., & Lenferink, L. I. M. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12440 · Cited by 24
A multi factorial model of self-harm behaviors in Anorexia-nervosa and Bulimia-nervosa
Sagiv, E., & Gvion, Y. (2019) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.152142 · Cited by 33
Cognitive behavioural therapy and mindfulness for relatives of missing persons: a pilot study
Lenferink, L., de Keijser, J., Wessel, I., & Boelen, P. (2019) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-019-0472-z · Cited by 24
Trial for the Prevention of Depression (TriPoD) in final-year secondary students: study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial
Perry, Y., Calear, A. L., Mackinnon, A. J., Batterham, P. J., Licinio, J., KING, C. A., Thomsen, N., Scott, J. L., Donker, T., Merry, S., et al. (2015) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0929-1 · Cited by 26
“The scale has good construct validity [79] and convergent and discriminant validity [80].”
Background
The Self-Compassion Scale: Validation and Psychometric Properties within the Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling Framework
Rakhimov, A., Realo, A., & Tang, N. K. Y. (2022) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2022.2093731 · Cited by 29
“The Brooding subscale showed good convergent and discriminant validity (Schoofs et al., 2010).”
Method
A randomized controlled trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) versus treatment-as-usual (TAU) for chronic, treatment-resistant depression: study protocol
Cladder-Micus, M. B., Vrijsen, J. N., Becker, E. S., Donders, R. A. R. T., Spijker, J., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2015) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0647-y · Cited by 25
“brooding) [33].”
Effect of self-discrepancy on specificity of autobiographical memory retrieval
Schoofs, H., Hermans, D., & Raes, F. (2011) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2011.637934 · Cited by 25
“The Dutch version by Raes, Schoofs, and colleagues (2009) was used, for which adequate reliability and validity is reported (Schoofs, Hermans, & Raes, 2010 ).”
MethodSelf-citation
Does Rumination Mediate the Unique Effects of Shame and Guilt on Procrastination?
Oflazian, J. S., & Borders, A. (2022) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-022-00466-y · Cited by 44
“These subscales show good convergent and discriminant validity (Schoofs et al., 2010; Treynor et al., 2003).”
Background
Self-Focused Attention and Depressive Symptoms in Adults with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Burns, A., Irvine, M., & Woodcock, K. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3732-5 · Cited by 20
The association between perseverative cognition and resting heart rate variability: A focus on state ruminative thoughts
Kocsel, N., Köteles, F. G., Szemenyei, E., Szabó, E., Galambos, A., & Kökönyei, G. (2019) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.04.004 · Cited by 22
The Consequences of Choking in Sport: A Constructive or Destructive Experience?
Hill, D. M., Cheesbrough, M., Gorczynski, P., & Matthews, N. L. (2019) · The Sport Psychologist · doi:10.1123/tsp.2018-0070 · Cited by 20
Measurement Invariance of the Ruminative Responses Scale Across Gender
Whisman, M. A., Miranda, R., Fresco, D. M., Heimberg, R. G., Jeglic, E. L., & Weinstock, L. M. (2018) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191118774131 · Cited by 23
“Relatively poor fit for the two-factor model of the Dutch version of the 10-item RRS was found in a Dutch-speaking, Belgian undergraduate sample (Schoofs et al., 2010) and community sample (Griffith & Raes, 2014).”
MethodResult
Emotion Regulation of Events Central to Identity and Their Relationship With Concurrent and Prospective Depressive Symptoms
del Palacio‐González, A., & Berntsen, D. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.11.002 · Cited by 24
Memory specificity in borderline personality disorder: Associations with depression and self-discrepancy
den Broeck, K. V., Claes, L., Pieters, G., & Raes, F. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.001 · Cited by 23
Self-citation
Managing Rumination and worry: A randomised controlled trial of an internet intervention targeting repetitive negative thinking delivered with and without clinician guidance
Joubert, A. E., Grierson, A. B., Li, I., Sharrock, M. J., Moulds, M. L., Werner‐Seidler, A., Stech, E. P., Mahoney, A., & Newby, J. M. (2023) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2023.104378 · Cited by 26
The Mediating Role of Rumination in the Relation between Basic Psychological Need Frustration and Depressive Symptoms
Heißel, A., Pietrek, A., Kangas, M., van der Kaap‐Deeder, J., & Rapp, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12020395 · Cited by 25
“This leads previous studies to conclude that brooding, relative to reflection, represents the particularly maladaptive component of rumination [33,41], whereas the reflection component correlates with basic need frustration, but does not predict depressive symptoms.”
Background
Factors associated with relapse and recurrence of major depressive disorder in patients starting mindfulness‐based cognitive therapy
de Klerk-Sluis, J. M., Huijbers, M., Löcke, S., Spijker, J., Spinhoven, P., Speckens, A., & Ruhé, H. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23220 · Cited by 19

Authors: Schoofs, H., Hermans, D., & Raes, F.
Affiliations: KU Leuven (BE)
Corresponding author: Schoofs, Hanne
ORCID: Hermans, Dirk
Raes, Filip
Venue: Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2010-03-02
Volume: 32
Issue: 4
Pages: 609-617
ISSN: 0164-0305 (ISSN-L)
0882-2689
1573-3505
DOI: 10.1007/s10862-010-9182-9
OpenAlex: W2028185525
Cited by: 261
References: 57
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 11
FWCI: 17.59
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment (publishedVersion)
Lirias (submittedVersion)
Funders: Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords: rumination, brooding, reflection, depressive rumination, Ruminative Response Scale, psychometric properties, factor structure, depressive symptoms, non-clinical sample

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Brooding and reflection as subtypes of rumination: evidence from confirmatory factor analysis in nonclinical samples using the dutch ruminative response scale.

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