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Algorithmic Decision-Making and the Control Problem
Open accessAbstract
The danger of human operators devolving responsibility to machines and failing to detect cases where they fail has been recognised for many years by industrial psychologists and engineers studying the human operators of complex machines. We call it “the control problem”, understood as the tendency of the human within a human–machine control loop to become complacent, over-reliant or unduly diffident when faced with the outputs of a reliable autonomous system. While the control problem has been investigated for some time, up to this point its manifestation in machine learning contexts has not received serious attention. This paper aims to fill that gap. We argue that, except in certain special circumstances, algorithmic decision tools should not be used in high-stakes or safety-critical decisions unless the systems concerned are significantly “better than human” in the relevant domain or subdomain of decision-making. More concretely, we recommend three strategies to address the control problem, the most promising of which involves a complementary (and potentially dynamic ) coupling between highly proficient algorithmic tools and human agents working alongside one another. We also identify six key principles which all such human–machine systems should reflect in their design. These can serve as a framework both for assessing the viability of any such human–machine system as well as guiding the design and implementation of such systems generally.
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“Human oversight has also been subject to criticism, with concerns being raised about the efficacy of oversight in practice and its potential role as a mere vehicle to legitimize imperfect AI systems [31, 89].”
From On the Quest for Effectiveness in Human Oversight: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (2024) · cites this paper as [89]
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“This way, the design of the system can support the attention of decision makers by varying reliability over time (Goddard et al., 2012; Zerilli et al., 2019).”
From Check the box! How to deal with automation bias in AI-based personnel selection (2023) · cites this paper as Zerilli et al., 2019
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“Alternatively, oversight persons may only receive the AI-based output after they have made up their own mind about a specific case because then they would not initially be affected by the AIbased output and may be in a better position to judge whether the AI-based output is appropriate [31, 89].”
From On the Quest for Effectiveness in Human Oversight: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (2024) · cites this paper as [89]
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“Diffusion of responsibility also occurs in tasks humans share with automatic systems”
From Check the box! How to deal with automation bias in AI-based personnel selection (2023) · cites this paper as Zerilli et al., 2019
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“Since automation bias tends to occur especially when the system is perceived as highly reliable (Zerilli et al., 2019) and has been working error-free for a long time, i.e., has low failure rates (Parasuraman and Manzey, 2010), companies should make decision makers aware of possible system failures not once, but on a regular base.”
From Check the box! How to deal with automation bias in AI-based personnel selection (2023) · cites this paper as Zerilli et al., 2019
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“One of the consequences can be the shift from operator to supervisor, that is, expert work becomes more about monitoring and surveillance than before (Zerilli et al. 2019).”
From Chatbot breakthrough in the 2020s? An ethical reflection on the trend of automated consultations in health care (2022) · cites this paper as Zerilli et al. 2019
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Metadata
- Authors
- Zerilli, J., Knott, A., Maclaurin, J., & Gavaghan, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Zerilli, John
- Venue
- Minds and Machines
- Published
- 2019-12
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 555-578
- ISSN
- 0924-6495 (ISSN-L)
- 1572-8641
- OpenAlex
- W2996655830
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 67
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 13.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Minds and Machines (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- New Zealand Law Foundation (2016/ILP/10)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality › Safety Systems Engineering in Autonomy
- Keywords
- control problems, algorithmic decision-making, human-machine systems, high-stakes decision making, human-machine collaboration, human-machine interface design
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