Archaeology, the Activist Community, and the Redistribution of Power in New York City

It may state two separate claims as one.

Archaeological evidence of clandestine Underground Railroad operations has been ephemeral, extremely limited, inconclusive, and easily explained away.

“Archaeological evidence of such a clandestine operation has been ephemeral, extremely limited, inconclusive, and easily explained away”

• cites Fruehling and Smith 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Levine et al. 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Delle and Levine 2004 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Brooklyn Redevelopment Corporation planned to use eminent domain to take over the buildings, prompting the call to SHA.

“The Brooklyn Redevelopment Corporation planned to use eminent domain to take over the buildings, prompting the call to SHA.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

As is often the case with purported Underground Railroad sites, the Duffield Street owners expected that anomalies and unexplainable features in the sub-basements and building architecture were indicative of tunnels, secret passageways, or other clandestine activities and hiding places.

“As is often the case with purported Underground Railroad sites, the Duffield Street owners were expecting that the anomalies and unexplainable features in the sub-basements and building architecture of several of the standing structures on the street were indicative of tunnels, secret passageways, or other clandestine activities and hiding places.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

All nine archaeologists and members of PANYC who visited agreed that Duffield Street buildings were compelling historical documents deserving of preservation, although few understood the subsurface features associated with the structures.

“All agreed that Duffield Street buildings were compelling historical documents deserving of preservation, although few understood the subsurface features associated with the structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Homeowners and local residents sought an archaeologist to help support their oral claims that several houses on Duffield Street held historic connections to abolitionists and warranted being saved from destruction.

“Homeowners and local residents were in search of an archaeologist who could help support their oral claims that several houses located on Duffield Street in downtown Brooklyn, New York held historic connections to abolitionists advocating an end to slavery and therefore warranted being saved from destruction”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The archaeological exploration of slavery in the north, or recognition of northern regions of the United States as part of the African diaspora, has been a slow process.

“The archaeological exploration of slavery in the north or the recognition of the northern regions of the United States-Brooklyn, Long Island, or New England, for example-as part of the African diaspora has been a slow process.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Several houses on Duffield Street shared vaults, although not consecutively, which gave the appearance of a connecting passageway between some of the houses.

“several of the houses shared vaults although not consecutively which gave the appearance of a connecting passageway between some of the houses.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Joy Chatel remembered stories her late husband Albert had told her about his first wife's abolitionist family and their associations with the Underground Railroad.

“Joy Chatel, owner of 227 Duffield Street remembered the stories her late husband, Albert, had told her about his first wife's abolitionist family and their associations with the Underground Railroad.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

In their final report, AKRF refutes the idea of vaults, referring only to the archaeological potential of 227 and 233 Duffield where there is an 8x8 area at the front of the floor of the cellar of 233 which has not been covered by concrete and the soil is well compacted within the area.

“In their final report, however, AKRF refutes the idea of vaults, referring only to the archaeological potential of 227 and 233 Duffield where there is an 8 9 8 area at the front of the floor of the cellar of 233 which has not been covered by concrete and the soil is well compacted within the area”

• cites AKRF 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The 1991 discovery of the New York African Burial Ground galvanized the public and reacquainted it with the city, state, and regional history of slavery in the north.

“The 1991 discovery of the New York African Burial Ground galvanized the public and reacquainted it with the city, state, and regional history of slavery in the north.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Significant archaeological potential in the basement passageways was clearly visible at 227 and 233 Duffield Street.

“Significant archaeological potential in the basement passageways were clearly visible at 227 and 233 Duffield Street.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The public found the revelations of the extent of abolitionist activities on Duffield Street in Brooklyn stubbornly durable and equally surprising.

“The public found the revelations of the extent of abolitionist activities on Duffield Street in Brooklyn stubbornly durable and equally surprising.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Among the New York public not associated with governmental agencies or archaeological firms, an elderly population was at the foreground of the movement, mainly retired black females available during the daytime hours for important scheduled oversight meetings.

“Among the New York public not associated with governmental agencies or archaeological firms, an elderly population was at the foreground of the movement, mainly retired black females available during the daytime hours for important scheduled oversight meetings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Of the more than ten thousand original burials at the height of the cemetery's use, a little more than four hundred were exhumed.

“Of the more than ten thousand original burials at the height of the cemetery's use, a little more than four hundred were exhumed.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Archaeologists informed the owners that archaeology could answer numerous questions about the buildings as they stood and had the potential to inform us about the lives of those who occupied the site.

“the archaeologists informed the owners that archaeology could answer numerous questions about the buildings as they stood and had the potential to inform us about the lives of those who occupied the site.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

On 3 October 2003, during the 'Rites of Ancestral Return' ceremony, the remains of more than 400 enslaved Africans were returned from Washington, D.C. and reinterred in an undeveloped portion of the cemetery site saved from development by protestors and activists.

“On 3 October 2003, during the ''Rites of Ancestral Return'' ceremony, the remains of more than 400 enslaved Africans were returned from Washington, D.C. and reinterred in an undeveloped portion of the cemetery site saved from development by protestors and activists.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Within the past 15 years, data from African American archaeological sites widely used outside the field have significantly impacted curricula, public education, tourism, and museum exhibitions, redefining how history is written and interpreted.

“Within the past 15 years, data from African American archaeological sites widely used outside the field have significantly impacted curricula, public education, tourism, and museum exhibitions, redefining how history is written and interpreted.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

An insistent public coalition of local activists, informed city and government workers, academics, and a concerned elderly population recognized the colonial cemetery's deep historical and spiritual significance well in advance of the government officials in control of the site.

“An insistent public coalition of local activists, informed city and government workers, academics and a very concerned elderly population recognized the colonial period cemetery's deep historical and spiritual significance well in advance of the government officials in control of the site.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The re-emergence of the long forgotten burial ground took the City, the public, the media, the federal government responsible for the site, and the archaeological profession by storm.

“The re-emergence of the long forgotten burial ground took the City, the public, the media, the federal government responsible for the site, and the archaeological profession by storm.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Excavations were limited to the area immediately impacted by construction in response to protests, so not all graves were excavated.

“Excavations were limited to the area immediately impacted by construction in response to protests, so not all graves were excavated.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

After painstaking research, 227 Duffield Street emerged as the most important and historically significant building of all the structures slated for demolition, with the closest connection to abolitionists and the Underground Railroad.

“227 Duffield Street emerged as the most important and historically significant building of all the structures slated for demolition, with the closest connection to abolitionists and the Underground Railroad.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Chatel and Greenstein found few available sources of funding to undertake the work, and none of the archaeologists consulted was prepared to commit to what would likely be a complex archaeological undertaking in a volatile political environment.

“Chatel and Greenstein found few available sources of funding to undertake the work, and none of the archaeologists consulted was prepared to commit to what, in all likelihood, would be a complex archaeological undertaking in a volatile political environment.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Other historic structures associated with the early history of the movement in Brooklyn were not spared, nor does it appear that any archaeology has been or will be undertaken.

“other historic structures associated with the early history of the movement in Brooklyn were not spared nor does it appear that any archaeology has been or will be undertaken.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In almost every instance the author encountered, the details of the oral histories were inaccurate, but the basis of the story was true.

“In almost every instance I encountered, the details of the oral histories were inaccurate, but the basis of the story was true .”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Thomas and Harriet Truesdale, most prominent among the building's owners, maintained a close association with William Lloyd Garrison.

“Most prominent among the building's owners were Thomas and Harriet Truesdale who maintained a close association with America's most famous abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Chatel and Greenstein formed a formidable alliance in their battle against the proposed Downtown Brooklyn Development project.

“The Duffield Street neighbors, Chatel and Greenstein, formed a formidable alliance in their battle against the proposed Downtown Brooklyn Development project”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Although no excavations took place, archaeologists testified before the City Council and joined a host of other community activists attempting to save the buildings from destruction.

“Although no excavations took place, archaeologists testified before the City Council and joined a host of other community activists attempting to save the buildings from destruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The recovered remains represented the earliest and largest bioarchaeological colonial population in the Americas.

“The recovered remains represented the earliest and largest bioarchaeological colonial population in the Americas.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Public interest in archaeology has fueled increasingly engaging projects in which the public participates as collaborators and contributors, excavators, laboratory workers, researchers and as oral and local historians.

“Public interest in archaeology has fueled increasingly engaging projects in which the public participates as collaborators and contributors, excavators, laboratory workers, researchers and as oral and local historians.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Archaeologists argued that the buildings should be saved to ensure the gathering of more conclusive evidence.

“the archaeologists argued that the buildings should be saved to ensure the gathering of more conclusive evidence.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The African Burial Ground functioned as the primary cemetery where thousands of free and enslaved colonial Africans and African American men, women, and particularly children were buried throughout the eighteenth century.

“the African Burial Ground functioned as the primary cemetery where thousands of free and enslaved colonial Africans and African American men, women, and particularly children were buried throughout the eighteenth century.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both the African Burial Ground and the Duffield Street site were shaped by the city's relentless engagement with modernity and the public's ongoing involvement with the reinterpretation of the city's past.

“Both the African Burial Ground and the Duffield Street site were shaped by the city's relentless engagement with modernity and the public's ongoing involvement with the reinterpretation of the city's past.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

From an Underground Railroad perspective, the existence of available easily adapted structural elements raises no suspicion and is one of the secrets contributing to the success of the clandestine movement.

“From an Underground Railroad perspective, the existence of available easily adapted structural elements raises no suspicion and is one of the secrets contributing to the success of the clandestine movement.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

In seeking 'underground' evidence of a largely above ground undertaking, Greenstein and Chatel replicated a frequently encountered misunderstanding of how the Underground Railroad operated.

“In seeking ''underground'' evidence of a largely above ground undertaking Greenstein and Chatel replicated a frequently encountered misunderstanding of how the Underground Railroad operated.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The experiences of Africans held captive in the early Dutch colony of New Amsterdam mirrored to some extent experiences around the Black Atlantic.

“Yet the experiences of Africans held captive in the early Dutch colony of New Amsterdam which later became New York City, mirrored to some extent experiences around the Black Atlantic.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The success of the Underground Railroad can be traced, in part, to the adaptive and normalizing reuse of existing structures.

“The success of the Underground Railroad can be traced, in part, to the adaptive and normalizing reuse of existing structures”

• cites Delle 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The search for tunnels ranks among the most common misperceptions within the field, other than associating quilts with the Underground Railroad.

“Other than associating quilts with the Underground Railroad, the search for tunnels ranks among the most common misperceptions within the field.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The African Burial Ground has been described as the single-most important historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States.

“The African Burial Ground, a seventeenth century African American cemetery located in Lower Manhattan, has been described as the single-most important, historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States”

• cites Associated Press 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The City was prepared to muscle its way through the oral tradition of place by taking the site through eminent domain, destroying the important historical resource, and privileging potential below ground archaeological resources over the viability of the standing structure.

“The City was prepared to muscle its way through the oral tradition of place by taking the site through eminent domain, destroying the important historical resource, and privileging potential below ground archaeological resources over the viability of the standing structure.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The narratives taught the author that there is a space between fact and fiction, truth and untruth, between veracity and doubt.

“The narratives taught me that there is a space between fact and fiction, truth and untruth, between veracity and doubt.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The African American public first had to define meaning and significance and then had to fight relentlessly for inclusion to sustain the vision.

“The African American public first had to define meaning and significance and then had to fight relentlessly for inclusion to sustain the vision.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Forming powerful coalitions with archaeologists, politicians, the legal profession, the media, scholars, and the local and extended community, the residents of Duffield Street rescued the historical and archaeological resource and are preserving it for future generations.

“Forming powerful coalitions with archaeologists, politicians, the legal profession, the media, with scholars and with the local and extended community, the residents of Duffield Street rescued the historical and archaeological resource and are preserving it for future generations.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Archaeology has been the proving ground for a type of public inclusion and civic engagement that is often advocated, but difficult to practice.

“Archaeology has been the proving ground for a type of public inclusion and civic engagement that is often advocated, but difficult to practice.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

Frequently, a knowing, committed, and often self-appointed public must insist that they be included in defining significance inherent in such major archaeological finds.

“Frequently, a knowing, committed, and often self-appointed public must insist that they be included in defining significance inherent in such major archaeological finds.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The struggle for inclusion on the part of the African American public has been a source of conflict as well as a positive influence for change around the discourse of interpretation and preservation.

“The struggle for inclusion on the part of the African American public has been a source of conflict as well as a positive influence for change around the discourse of interpretation and preservation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The ultimate destruction of the remaining buildings is indicative of the fate of poorly documented sites associated with the Underground Railroad; requisite documentation is often tenuous, oral accounts conflict, and corroboration frequently requires years of obscure research.

“The ultimate destruction of the remaining buildings is indicative of the fate of poorly documented sites associated with the Underground Railroad; requisite documentation is often tenuous, oral accounts conflict, and corroboration frequently requires years of obscure research.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The site would have been lost without the relentless efforts of Chatel and Greenstein in rallying the local public, garnering civic support, and steadfastly insisting on the credibility of their remembered history.

“Certainly, the site would have been lost without the relentless efforts of Chatel and Greenstein in rallying the local public, garnering civic support, and steadfastly insisting on the credibility of their remembered history.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The African Burial Ground ranks as one of the most highly contested archaeological sites in American history.

“It also ranks as one of the most highly contested archaeological sites in American history.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

As a result, the author now understands the necessity of activism and protest-the process of protest.

“As a result, I now understand the necessity of activism and protest-the process of protest”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

Dualistic thinking embedded in Eurocentric scholarship does not work well for people with suppressed histories.

“Dualistic thinking embedded in Eurocentric scholarship does not work well for people with suppressed histories.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In arguing for the strong research potential of the buildings, archaeologists were an important voice in saving the dwellings while historians continued to uncover historical facts that corroborated and expanded the oral narratives.

“In arguing for the strong research potential of the buildings, archaeologists were an important voice in saving the dwellings while historians continued to uncover historical facts that corroborated and expanded the oral narratives.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Obliteration of sites such as Duffield Street, whether by neglect or through active acts of destruction utilizing eminent domain, undercuts historical memory and marginalizes heritage.

“Obliteration of sites such as Duffield Street, whether by neglect or through active acts of destruction utilizing eminent domain, undercuts historical memory and marginalizes heritage.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: History precedes heritage; to destroy one is to destroy the other.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Throughout the process, Chatel, Greenstein and their supporters defined the dynamics of inclusion for the City of Brooklyn and for its redevelopment agencies.

“Throughout the process Chatel, Greenstein and their supporters defined the dynamics of inclusion for the City of Brooklyn and for its redevelopment agencies.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Much of this is the result of community activism.

“Much of this is the result of community activism.”