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Conscientiousness and Medication Adherence: A Meta-analysis
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Approximately a quarter to a half of all people fail to take their medication regimen as prescribed (i.e. non-adherence). Conscientiousness, from the five-factor model of personality, has been positively linked to adherence to medications in several recent studies. PURPOSE: This study aimed to systematically estimate the strength and variability of this association across multiple published articles and to identify moderators of this relationship. METHOD: A literature search identified 16 studies (N = 3,476) that met the study eligibility criteria. Estimates of effect sizes (r) obtained in these studies were meta-analysed. RESULTS: Overall, a higher level of conscientiousness was associated with better medication adherence (r = 0.15; 95 % CI, 0.09, 0.21). Associations were significantly stronger in younger samples (r = 0.26, 95 % CI, 0.17, 0.34; k = 7). CONCLUSION: The small association between conscientiousness and medication adherence may have clinical significance in contexts where small differences in adherence result in clinically important effects.
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“As researchers have noted, Conscientiousness is associated with positive health-related behaviours as it evinces a person's tendency to cohere with social norms and work toward objectives (Crescentini et al., 2018;Molloy et al., 2014).”
From What is the mindful personality? Implications for physical and psychological health (2022) · cites this paper as Molloy et al., 2014
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“For example, a moderator analysis using a meta-regression model can be conducted to examine the influence of mean age on the Molloy et al. (2014) dataset.”
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“This finding is consistent with the general literature on health behaviours (Bogg & Roberts, 2004; Molloy et al., 2014; Nolan, McCrory, & Moore, 2019) and recent COVID-19 studies (Abdelrahman, 2020; Blagov, 2020; Bogg & Milad, 2020; Carvalho et al., 2020; Shook et al., 2020).”
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“Molloy et al.119 investigated the relationship between conscientiousness and medication adherence.”
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“MARS and the additional questions were combined to overcome issues of under-reporting of non-adherence (Molloy et al, 2014; Hamilton 2003; Sewitch et al, 2003).”
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“The positive association between high conscientiousness and favorable medication compliance observed in the present study corroborates the results of a previous meta-analysis of patients with chronic diseases, including hypertension and diabetes mellitus [13].”
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“B Simulations based on the dataset from Section 4 We also added a simulation setting that is specific to the dataset from (Molloy et al., 2013) discussed in Section 4.”
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A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Income Inequality and Crime in Europe: Do Places Matter?
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Unpacking stigma: meta-analyses of correlates and moderators of personal stigma in psychosis
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“Included studies with high risk of bias can invalidate the results of a meta-analysis; therefore, we assessed the quality of individual studies using the following criteria (Dalili et al., 2015; Molloy et al., 2014): (a) Sufficient sample size (above 85).”
MethodConscientiousness, hair cortisol concentration, and health behaviour in older men and women
Steptoe, A., Easterlin, E., & Kirschbaum, C. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.09.016 · Cited by 38
“risk-taking activity, while being positively correlated with physical activity, prudent diet, adherence to medication and other protective behaviours (Allen et al., 2017; Bogg and Roberts, 2004; Hakulinen et al., 2015b,c; Molloy et al., 2014; Strickhouser et al., 2017; Sutin et al., 2016a).”
BackgroundGartland, N., O'Connor, D., Lawton, R., & Ferguson, E. (2014) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12077 · Cited by 43
Ko, K. M., Moon, S.-J., Koh, J. H., Pae, C., & Min, J. (2020) · Yonsei Medical Journal · doi:10.3349/ymj.2020.61.5.406 · Cited by 32
“In addition, because conscientiousness is associated with improved survival in observational studies, better medication adherence may partly explain this link.(31) High conscientiousness is positively related with age.”
BackgroundResultPersonality, Emotional Qualities of Leisure, and Subjective Well-Being in the Elderly
Kahlbaugh, P. E., & Huffman, L. (2016) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.1177/0091415016685329 · Cited by 36
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German Farmers' Awareness of Lameness in Their Dairy Herds
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“Following the suggestion from Molloy et al. (2014), a data coding sheet was created to extract relevant information from each study included in the project.”
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Tabernero, C., Gutiérrez‐Domingo, T., Vecchione, M., Cuadrado, E., Castillo‐Mayén, R., Rubio, S., Arenas, A., Delgado‐Lista, J., Jiménez-Pérez, P., & Luque, B. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0223862 · Cited by 22
“As discussed earlier, conscientiousness is also linked to health, because it facilitates adherence and self-discipline as regards medical recommendations, including medication regimes [24].”
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Thalmayer, A. G. (2018) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000551 · Cited by 20
Adherence to COVID-19 mitigation measures: The role of sociodemographic and personality factors
Turk, E., Čelik, T., Smrdu, M., Šet, J., Kuder, A., Gregorič, M., & Kralj‐Fišer, S. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02051-5 · Cited by 19
Marr, C., Vaportzis, E., Dewar, M., & Gow, A. J. (2019) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2019.103992 · Cited by 20
“Johnston, 2013), and this has been suggested a potential way to improve adherence amongst those lower in Conscientiousness (Molloy et al., 2014).”
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Partner Support and Goal Outcomes: A Multilevel Meta‐Analysis and a Methodological Critique
Vowels, L. M., & Carnelley, K. B. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2846 · Cited by 20
Samuel, D. B., Bucher, M. A., & Suzuki, T. (2018) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000487362 · Cited by 14
Twenty seconds of visual behaviour on social media gives insight into personality
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“A possible explanation for the varying performance across the categories also comes from the nature of the trait itself, with Conscientiousness being positively associated with task completion 32 , and adherence 33 .”
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Hill, P. L., & Payne, B. R. (2017) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000105 · Cited by 14
Attitudes towards social distancing in response to COVID‐19
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The impact of financial strain on medication non-adherence: Influence of psychiatric medication use
Strickland, J. C., Stoops, W. W., Kincer, M. A., & Rush, C. R. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.055 · Cited by 13
Unlocking Success in Counseling: How Personality Traits Moderates Its Effectiveness
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“Molloy et al. [35] demonstrated a positive correlation between the conscientiousness trait from the FFM and treatment adherence.”
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“donation, and noncompliance with medical treatment.(9) Hence, we extend this type of work to investigate whether psychosocial characteristics would similarly or differently predict voluntary nonmedical lapse from the Dutch donor pool.”
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Personality and adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adult patients
Hernández-Huerta, D., Parro-Torres, C., Madoz‐Gúrpide, A., Pérez-Elı́as, M. J., Moreno, S., & Mangado, E. O. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110413 · Cited by 11
Selected psychological factors and medication adherence in patients with rheumatoid arthritis
Bąk‐Sosnowska, M., Wyszomirska, J., & Daniel‐Sielańczyk, A. (2021) · Reumatologia/Rheumatology · doi:10.5114/reum.2021.105433 · Cited by 11
“The effect of psychological factors, such as lack of motivation, poor quality of patient–doctor relationship, low level of self-efficacy, low level or conscientiousness or social support, has also been demonstrated [12, 13].”
BackgroundFerretti, F., Goracci, A., Laurenzi, P. F., Centola, R., Crecchi, I., Luca, A. D., Monzillo, J., Guidi, O., Sinigaglia, G., Gualtieri, G., et al. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12101315 · Cited by 11
“A relatively large number of studies have investigated the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and medication adherence in patients with chronic medical conditions [24,25].”
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“A large body of literature that has shown that personality traits are important predictors of health behaviors (e.g., Turiano et al., 2018), adherence to medical regimens (e.g., Molloy et al., 2014), disease onset (e.g., Weston et al., 2015), and mortality risk (e.g., Graham et al., 2017).”
BackgroundThe association of personality traits with childhood obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Jiang, D.-X., Huang, T., Chen, J., Xiao, W., Shan, R., & Liu, Z. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.08.072 · Cited by 9
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“This can also be enhanced by adapting existing validated tools, such as scales testing personality or self-efficacy (see below).”
Tabernero, C., Gutiérrez‐Domingo, T., Vecchione, M., Cuadrado, E., Castillo‐Mayén, R., Rubio, S., Arenas, A., Delgado‐Lista, J., Pérez‐Martínez, P., & Luque, B. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229582 · Cited by 10
What is the mindful personality? Implications for physical and psychological health
Beaulieu, D. A., Proctor, C. J., Gaudet, D. J., Canales, D., & Best, L. A. (2022) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103514 · Cited by 12
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“It is positively associated with various adaptive outcomes, such as healthier day-to-day lifestyle choices [19,20] and higher treatment adherence [21], even for particularly demanding treatment regimens [22,23].”
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“A meta-analysis of 16 studies found a significant association between conscientiousness and medication adherence (Molloy et al., 2014) with higher levels of”
MethodHEXACO Traits, Big Five Traits, and COVID-19Preprint
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Sex-Specific Dietary Patterns and Social Behaviour in Low-Risk Individuals
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“Conscientious individuals tend to pursue higher quality of life and healthier life paths, such as engaging in more physical exercise and outdoor activities, and adhering to treatment and medication because of being self-disciplined and responsible [58,59], which is more conducive to physical health.”
BackgroundParticipant Engagement in Microrandomized Trials of mHealth Interventions: Scoping Review
Leong, U., & Chakraborty, B. (2023) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/44685 · Cited by 8
“Researchers should pay particular attention to the role of conscientiousness as it seems to be the most relevant to mHealth engagement [49] and it has been consistently linked to positive health behaviors [50,51].”
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Conscientiousness and adherence to the oral contraceptive pill: A prospective study
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“It is not known however if adherence to the OCP is linked with conscientiousness, as this has been mostly examined in the context of secondary prevention medications in those with chronic illnesses (Molloy et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialPersonality Segmentation for Optimal Health Care: A Review and Proposed Segmentation Approach
Kim, J., Jasper, A., Baek, Y., & Martin, P. (2023) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-023-00749-z · Cited by 8
“Similarly, Molloy et al. (2014) reported that consci-entiousness was a significant predictor of medication adherence.”
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Personality Predictors of Emergency Department Post-Discharge Outcomes
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“These results are somewhat surprising because prior work has shown that personality traits are related to medication and doctor adherence (Friedman et al., 2013; Hajek et al., 2017; Hill & Roberts, 2011; Jerant et al., 2011; Molloy et al., 2014), and we expected adherence to post-discharge instructions from the emerge…”
BackgroundResultIndividual Differences and Situational Constraint Predict Information Search in Negotiation Planning
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“For example, conscientious people tend to outperform their peers in activities that demand substantial planning skills, such as health outcomes (Molloy et al. 2014) and asset accumulation (Letkiewicz and Fox 2014).”
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“…Conscientiousness is consistently strongly correlated to medication adherence, either with individuals high in Conscientiousness related to increased adherence, or individuals low in Conscientiousness predicting non-adherence (Axelsson et al., 2011; Emilsson et al., 2011; Molloy et al., 2014).”
HIV/AIDS, treatment adherence, and lifestyle: A qualitative study
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Psychological Distress and Medication Adherence
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“…participants with potentially heterogeneous backgrounds revealed that, instead of agreeableness, conscientiousness became a significant factor, which is consistent with a previous meta-analysis reporting that a higher level of conscientiousness was associated with better medication adherence [42].”
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Personality and Type 2 Diabetes
Mika Kivimaki, B., Batty, G. D., & Jokela, M. M. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805300-3.00005-0 · Cited by 4
“Individuals with high conscientiousness may be more likely to implement adequate self-care than those with low conscientiousness (Molloy et al., 2014; Phillips & Guarnaccia, 2015), but we are not aware of large-scale studies that would have tested this hypothesis with diabetes progression.”
BackgroundLampert, S. L., Feldman, E. C. H., Durkin, L. K., Davies, W. H., & Greenley, R. N. (2022) · Children's Health Care · doi:10.1080/02739615.2021.1971986 · Cited by 3
Gómez, A. M. A., Mendoza, M. A. D., Bello-Lemus, Y., León-Mejía, G., & Ruiz-Benitez, M. (2023) · Scientia Pharmaceutica · doi:10.3390/scipharm92010002 · Cited by 3
“Each selected article was subjected to an evaluation of its methodological quality using a scale of 1 to 4, where those studies obtaining the highest scores indicate a higher quality, as established in [30].”
MethodPark, C. S., Choi, J., Kwak, S., Lee, S., Kim, H., Kim, Y.-J., Kwak, S. H., & Park, J. (2024) · BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care · doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2024-004244 · Cited by 7
Wootton, B. M., Melkonian, M., McDonald, S., Karin, E., Titov, N., & Dear, B. F. (2024) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12517 · Cited by 3
“This is consistent with other research that demonstrates that those with high levels of conscientiousness are more likely to adhere to various interventions/treatments (Carvalho et al., 2020; Molloy et al., 2014; Wall et al., 2020).”
Buckingham, R. M., & Corkeron, J. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05594 · Cited by 3
O'Connor, D., Wilson, A. E., & Lawton, R. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-017-9632-9 · Cited by 4
“C has also been found to be associated with better health status [6], greater adherence to medication [4] and lower obesity risk across populations [7].”
BackgroundHaarmann, L., Kalbe, E., Anapa, G., Kurt, D., & Seven, Ü. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22030392 · Cited by 3
“Conscientiousness has previously been positively and consistently associated with both personal resources [17–19] and trust and adherence [20–23].”
Personality Traits and Treatment Adherence Among Parents of Children with Atopic Dermatitis
Čagalj, A. M., Čeprnja, Z. Š., Gaćina, D. L., Duvnjak, J. P., Pavić, M., Salapić, T. G., Pavlić, B., Pranić, S. M., & Vuković, D. (2025) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina62010059 · Cited by 2
“These findings are broadly consonant with prior research showing that dispositional traits, and conscientiousness in particular, predict health behaviors and medication adherence across different medical conditions [30,31].”
InfluentialUsing heterogeneity in disease to understand the relationship between health and personality
James, R. J. E., Walsh, D. A., & Ferguson, E. (2021) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2021.1903057 · Cited by 2
Campbell, A. R., Hill, P. L., Nicholson, V., Lambert, S., Côté, H. C. F., Edmonds, G. W., Pick, N., & Murray, M. C. M. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/cbs0000363 · Cited by 2
Phillips, L. A., More, K. R., Russell, D., & Kim, H. S. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-024-00503-4 · Cited by 2
Personality-Based Approaches to Health and Health Behavior Interventions
Juchem, C. M., Baumgardt, S., & Asselmann, E. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-92-1290-3_13 · Cited by 2
Shaffer, J. A. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112925 · Cited by 2
Saw, H.-W., & Kapteyn, A. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0332902 · Cited by 2
Álvarez, J. F. L., Mendoza, R. G., Braz, M. A. T., & Sagarduy, J. L. Y. (2021) · Gaceta Médica de Caracas · doi:10.47307/gmc.2021.129.s1.17 · Cited by 2
Personality traits and co-occurrence of depressive symptoms and high BMI: a prospective cohort study
Chen, J., Shan, R., Wang, Y., Zhang, X.-R., Xiao, W., & Liu, Z. (2024) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-024-02518-3 · Cited by 2
Psychometric properties of self-reported medication adherence tools in cardiovascular disease
Tegegn, H. G., d’Espaignet, E. T., Wark, S., & Spark, M. J. (2019) · The JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports · doi:10.11124/jbisrir-d-19-00117 · Cited by 2
Turk, E., Čelik, T., Smrdu, M., Šet, J., Kuder, A., Gregorič, M., & Kralj‐Fišer, S. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hrfyk · Cited by 2
Carbone, M. G., Polizzi, C., Pasqua, M. M. D., Morales, M. R., Perricone, G., Cucinella, G., Sutera, R., Burgio, S., & Giordano, G. (2025) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852925100436 · Cited by 1
“94 This effect may be particularly pronounced in younger individuals, 91 potentially because they are still developing consistent health.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Molloy, G. J., O’Carroll, R. E., & Ferguson, E.
- Affiliations
- Ollscoil na Gaillimhe – University of Galway (IE)
- University of Stirling (GB)
- University of Nottingham (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Molloy, G. J.
- Venue
- Annals of Behavioral Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2013-06-20
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 92-101
- ISSN
- 0742-5554 (ISSN-L)
- 0883-6612
- 1532-4796
- OpenAlex
- W2047867687
- Cited by
- 130
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 5 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 0.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annals of Behavioral Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Family Practice › Medication Adherence and Compliance
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- conscientiousness, medication adherence, five-factor model of personality, personality traits, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Personality, Medication Adherence
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