Hallucinating with AI: Distributed Delusions and “AI Psychosis”
Open accessAbstract
There is much discussion of the false outputs that generative AI systems such as ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, DeepSeek, and Grok create. In popular terminology, these have been dubbed “AI hallucinations”. However, deeming these AI outputs “hallucinations” is controversial, with many claiming this is a metaphorical misnomer. Nevertheless, in this paper, I argue that when viewed through the lens of distributed cognition theory, we can better see the dynamic ways in which inaccurate beliefs, distorted memories and self-narratives, and delusional thinking can emerge through human-AI interactions; extreme examples of which are sometimes referred to as “AI(-induced) psychosis”. In such cases, I suggest we move away from thinking about how an AI system might hallucinate at us, by generating false outputs, to thinking about how, when we routinely rely on generative AI to help us think, remember, and narrate, we can come to hallucinate with AI. This can happen when AI introduces errors into the distributed cognitive process, but it can also happen when AI sustains, affirms, and elaborates on our own delusional thinking and self-narratives. In particular, I suggest that the social conversational style of chatbots can lead them to play a dual-function—both as a cognitive artefact and a quasi-Other with whom we co-construct our sense of reality. It is this dual function, I suggest, that makes generative AI an unusual, and particularly seductive, case of distributed delusion.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
As LLM-CBs adapt to the user's delusional input, reality checks may be outsourced to LLM-CBs.
“As LLM-CBs adapts to the user’s delusional input16, reality checks may be outsourced to LLM-CBs140.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [140]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association (2013) · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 · Cited by 116,369 · see citing works
Hutchins, E. (1995) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/1881.001.0001 · Cited by 10,801 · see citing works
On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big? 🦜
Bender, E. M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., & Shmitchell, S. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3442188.3445922 · Cited by 6,988 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Although many of us can spot something absurd in the recommendation to put glue on our pizza, when false outputs are pre-2 sented alongside accurate ones, it is easy for us to trust what generative AI places in front of us (Bender et al. 2021).”
Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998) · Analysis · doi:10.1093/analys/58.1.7 · Cited by 5,457 · cited 1× · see citing works
“7 Perhaps most well-known is Clark and Chalmers’ (1998) extended mind thesis, illustrated through the case of Otto and Inga.”
Cognitive Interdependence in Close Relationships
Wegner, D. M., Giuliano, T., & Hertel, P. T. (1985) · Compatible and Incompatible Relationships · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5044-9_12 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
(2000) · doi:10.1109/afgr.2000.840616 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Minds: extended or scaffolded?
Sterelny, K. (2010) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-010-9174-y · Cited by 619 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Rather, cognition always takes place through entanglement of agent and world, and we should instead speak of the degree to which something is distributed (e.g., Sterelny, 2010; Sutton, 2010; Heersmink, 2015, 2017).”
Hicks, M. T., Humphries, J., & Slater, J. (2024) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-024-09775-5 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Exograms and Interdisciplinarity: History, the Extended Mind, and the Civilizing Process
Sutton, J. D. (2010) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262014038.003.0009 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Menary, R. (2007) · doi:10.1057/9780230592889 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
ChatGPT: these are not hallucinations – they’re fabrications and falsifications
Emsley, R. (2023) · Schizophrenia · doi:10.1038/s41537-023-00379-4 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
AI Hallucinations: A Misnomer Worth Clarifying
Maleki, N., Padmanabhan, B., & Dutta, K. (2024) · 2024 IEEE Conference on Artificial Intelligence (CAI) · doi:10.1109/cai59869.2024.00033 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Distributing Cognition in the Globe
Tribble, E. B. (2005) · Shakespeare Quarterly · doi:10.1353/shq.2005.0065 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Distributed Cognition and Memory Research: History and Current Directions
Michaelian, K., & Sutton, J. D. (2013) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-013-0131-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Mind Invasion: Situated Affectivity and the Corporate Life Hack
Slaby, J. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00266 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Sharma, M., Tong, M., Korbak, T., Duperrouzel, D., Was, H., Korbak, J., Cheng, M., Askell, A., Bai, Y., Brain, C., et al. (2023) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2310.13548 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Kapoor, S., & Narayanan, A. (2024) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1353/book.129007 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Distributed selves: personal identity and extended memory systems
Heersmink, R. (2016) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-016-1102-4 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Communing with the Dead Online: Chatbots, Grief, and Continuing Bonds
Krueger, J. W., & Osler, L. (2022) · Journal of Consciousness Studies · doi:10.53765/20512201.29.9.222 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citationThe rise of the robots and the crisis of moral patiency
Danaher, J. (2017) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-017-0773-9 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
The Cognitive Ecology of the Internet
Smart, P. R., Heersmink, R., & Clowes, R. W. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49115-8_13 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Transactive Memory Systems: A Mechanistic Analysis of Emergent Group Memory
Theiner, G. (2013) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-012-0128-x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
AI Extenders: The Ethical and Societal Implications of Humans Cognitively Extended by AI
Hernández-Orallo, J., & Vold, K. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society · doi:10.1145/3306618.3314238 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Thinking in the Cloud: The Cognitive Incorporation of Cloud-Based Technology
Clowes, R. W. (2014) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-014-0153-z · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Sycophancy in Large Language Models: Causes and Mitigations
Malmqvist, L. (2025) · Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-92611-2_5 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Sycophancy in Large Language Models: Causes and Mitigations
Malmqvist, L. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2411.15287 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Østergaard, S. D. (2023) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbad128 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Krueger, J. W., & Osler, L. (2019) · Philosophical Topics · doi:10.5840/philtopics201947223 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Self-citationExtended mind and cognitive enhancement: moral aspects of cognitive artifacts
Heersmink, R. (2015) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-015-9448-5 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
You, robot: on the linguistic construction of artificial others
Coeckelbergh, M. (2010) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-010-0289-z · Cited by 85 · see citing works
City Living: How Urban Spaces and Urban Dwellers Make One Another
Kukla, Q. R. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190855369.001.0001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Timms, R. G., & Spurrett, D. (2023) · Philosophical Papers · doi:10.1080/05568641.2023.2231652 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Folie à Deux and shared psychotic disorder
Shimizu, M., Kubota, Y., Toichi, M., & Baba, H. (2007) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-007-0019-5 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The Intersubjective Dimension of Schizophrenia
Duppen, Z. V. (2017) · Philosophy, psychiatry & psychology · doi:10.1353/ppp.2017.0058 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The dark side of niche construction
Coninx, S. (2023) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-023-02024-3 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Technological folie à deux: feedback loops between AI chatbots and mental health
Dohnány, S., Kurth-Nelson, Z., Spens, E., Luettgau, L., Reid, A., Gabriel, I., Summerfield, C., Shanahan, M., & Nour, M. M. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00595-8 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Narrative niche construction: memory ecologies and distributed narrative identities
Heersmink, R. (2020) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-020-09770-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Mallory, F. (2023) · Ergo an Open Access Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.3998/ergo.4668 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Jaspers, K. (1997) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.56021/9780801857751 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Disturbances of Shared Intentionality in Schizophrenia and Autism
Salice, A., & Henriksen, M. G. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.570597 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Real Feeling and Fictional Time in Human-AI Interactions
Krueger, J. W., & Roberts, T. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10046-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Osler, L. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10146-4 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationA fictional dualism model of social robots
Sweeney, P. (2021) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-021-09589-9 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Large language models and their big bullshit potential
Fisher, S. A. (2024) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-024-09802-5 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Delusions by design? How everyday AIs might be fuelling psychosis (and what can be done about it)
Morrin, H., Nicholls, L., Levin, M., Yiend, J., Iyengar, U., DelGuidice, F., Bhattacharyya, S., MacCabe, J., Tognin, S., Twumasi, R., et al. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cmy7n_v5 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Data, Metadata, Mental Data? Privacy and the Extended Mind
Palermos, S. O. (2022) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2022.2148772 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-Narration in the Oppressive Niche
Fabry, R. E. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10088-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Collaborative Remembering: When Can Remembering With Others Be Beneficial?
Harris, C. B. (2010) · Conference of the Australasian Society for Cognitive Science · doi:10.5096/ascs200921 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Byrne, E. A. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10105-z · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Double-Edged Sword of Anthropomorphism in LLMs
Reinecke, M. G., Ting, F., Savulescu, J., & Singh, I. (2025) · Proceedings · doi:10.3390/proceedings2025114004 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Ethics of the Extended Mind: Mental Privacy, Manipulation and Agency
Clowes, R. W., Smart, P., & Heersmink, R. (2024) · Techno:Phil – Aktuelle Herausforderungen der Technikphilosophie · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-68362-0_2 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Cut the crap: a critical response to “ChatGPT is bullshit”
Gunkel, D. J., & Coghlan, S. (2025) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-025-09828-3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Preventive mental health care: A complex systems framework for ambient smart environments
White, B. P., & Hipólito, I. (2023) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2023.101199 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Fabry, R. E. (2024) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2024.2373284 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
AI Extenders and the Ethics of Mental Health
Vold, K., & Hernández‐Orallo, J. (2021) · Advances in neuroethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74188-4_12 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Yeung, J. A., Dalmasso, J., Foschini, L., Dobson, R. J., & Kraljevic, Z. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2509.10970 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Something AI Should Tell You – The Case for Labelling Synthetic Content
Fisher, S. A. (2024) · Journal of Applied Philosophy · doi:10.1111/japp.12758 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
(Self-)Envy, Digital Technology, and Me
Osler, L. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10047-6 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationGorrieri, L. (2024) · Journal of Ethics and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.55613/jeet.v34i1.149 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Telakivi, P., Kokkonen, T., Hakli, R., & Mäkelä, P. (2025) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2025.2472759 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
There’s a Pill for That: Bad Pharmaceutical Scaffolding and Psychiatrization
Lavallee, Z. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10147-3 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Home as mind: AI extenders and affective ecologies in dementia care
Krueger, J. W. (2025) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-025-04923-w · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Another reason to call bullshit on AI “hallucinations”
Slater, J., & Humphries, J. (2025) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02346-2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Antagonistic AIPreprint
Cai, A., Arawjo, I., & Glassman, E. L. (2024) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2402.07350 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Beauty Filters in Self-Perception: The Distorted Mirror Gazing Hypothesis
Andrada, G. (2025) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10149-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
tl;dr: Chill, y’all: AI Will Not Devour SE
Kang, E., & Shaw, M. (2024) · Proceedings of the 2024 ACM SIGPLAN International Symposium on New Ideas, New Paradigms, and Reflections on Programming and Software · doi:10.1145/3689492.3689816 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Krueger, J. W., & Osler, L. (2025) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-025-09871-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationMindshaping and narrative devices
Osler, L. (2025) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781032639239-42 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationTalking to Myself: AI and Self-Knowledge
Schechtman, M. (2025) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2025.2480274 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tanesini, A. (2025) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119757832.ch56 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
AI GossipPreprint
Krueger, J., & Osler, L. (2025) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2508.08143
Self-citationDelusions by design? How everyday AIs might be fuelling psychosis (and what can be done about it)
Morrin, H., Nicholls, L., Levin, M., Yiend, J., Iyengar, U., DelGuidice, F., Bhattacharyya, S., MacCabe, J., Tognin, S., Twumasi, R., et al. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/cmy7n_v2
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Bleuler, E. (1950). Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. International Universities Press.
- Werkheiser & M. Butler eds. Finding Our Place in the Digital World. Springer.
- Pearson, J. (2024). Why hallucination? Examining the history, and stakes, of how we label ai's undesirable output. Los Angeles Review of Books. h t t p s : / / l a r
- Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S. (2023). ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education? Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 342-363.
- Sass, L., & Pienkos, E. (2013). Space, time, and atmosphere a comparative phenomenology of melancho- lia, mania, and schizophrenia, part II. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 20(7-8), 131-152.
- Telakivi, P. (ms) (Ed.). Remembering with AI.
- Zhang, Y., Zhao, D., Hancock, J. T., Kraut, R., & Yang, D. (2025). The rise of AI companions: How Human-Chatbot relationships influence Well-Being. ArXiv Preprint arXiv:250612605.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Characterizing the spiral: potential mechanisms in AI-associated delusions
Augustin, M., Pollak, T. A., & Morrin, H. (2026) · NPP—Digital Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s44277-026-00065-0 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Understanding the mechanism of human–AI interaction: a distributed cognition perspective
Zhao, H., & Han, Z. (2026) · Journal of Documentation · doi:10.1108/jd-01-2026-0003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots
Diel, A., Torous, J., Cuijpers, P., Kleesiek, J., Nensa, F., Weber, N., Faust, F., Lalgi, T. J., Mellis, F. S., Teufel, M., et al. (2026) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-026-03054-x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Krueger, J. W., & Osler, L. (2025) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-025-09871-0 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationAdemolu, E. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-02956-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Ballouk, M. A.-H., & Altinawi, M. (2026) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-026-01082-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Epistemic laundering: generative AI and the naturalization of misrecognition
Kalaitzidis, T. J. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03068-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Grounding the right to refuse AI chatbot use in higher education
Daly, T. P. (2026) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-026-01233-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rethinking UX in the age of AI: DARPA’s Heilmeier Catechism at the interface 1
Prietula, M. J., O’Leary, D. E., & Swartout, W. (2026) · Journal of Decision System · doi:10.1080/12460125.2026.2655311
Will AI do more harm than good to the UK's mental health?
McGilchrist, I., Osler, L., & Blease, C. (2026) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2026-953015
Self-citationKansa, E. C. (2026) · Internet Archaeology · doi:10.11141/ia.71.15
Tong, T. X., Gong, Z. Z., & Yao, S. Y. (2026) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.111847
Trust in AI Systems: Perceptions of Trust in an Era of Algorithmic Influence
Morel, P., Gordon, N. A., & Taylor, R. (2026) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-34044-3_5
AI, realism, or phantasm; the artificial hallucination
Elghblawi, E. (2026) · World Family Medicine Journal/Middle East Journal of Family Medicine · doi:10.5742/mewfm.2026.241788
From Gardens to Landscapes: a new Foundation for Hypertext in the Age of Agentic LLMs
Lupi, L., Brooker, S., Fedriga, R., Picca, D., & Antonini, A. (2026) · ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media (HT) · doi:10.1145/3800935.3830866
Educating minds with generative AI
Paolo, L. D. D., Clark, A., & Wachter, T. (2026) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-026-00522-8
Devotional AI: digital companions and bad faith love
Krueger, J. W., & Osler, L. (2026) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-026-10211-w
Self-citationThe paradox of pleasing: therapeutic recognition and the limits of conversational AI
Haber, Y., Refoua, E., Elyoseph, Z., & Yinon, D. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03348-4
Crozatier, N. (2026) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-026-05804-6
Abbas, M. A. I. S. (2026) · مجلة الاتقان للعلوم الإنسانية · doi:10.66359/itqan.v1i4.070
Living with AI-extenders: ethical challenges to mental autonomy
Telakivi, P. (2026) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-026-05831-3
Synthetic corroboration: when AI interpretation looks like independent evidence
Du, Y. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and AI · doi:10.1080/29974100.2026.2750743
Algorithmic Sycophancy Mitigation Approach: Quantifying AI-Reinforced Delusion in LLMs
Swetha, M., Brunda, G., Shidaganti, G. I., Chaudhari, P. S., Ayaan, S. M., Tejashwini, A. N., & Sasikanthan, S. (2026) · International Conference on Integrated Circuits, Communication, and Computing Systems (ICIC3S) · doi:10.1109/icic3s72305.2026.11737289
¿Existe la “psicosis por IA”? Una reflexión conceptual
Rivera, G. H. A. (2026) · Revista Médicas UIS · doi:10.18273/revmed.v39n3-20260010
Artificial Intelligence and Behavioural Risk
Smith, P. M. R. (2026) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003785811
- Authors
- Osler, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Exeter (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Osler, Lucy
- ORCID
- Osler, Lucy
- Venue
- Philosophy & Technology
- Published
- 2026-02-11
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 1
- ISSN
- 2210-5433 (ISSN-L)
- 2210-5441
- OpenAlex
- W7128592265
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21
- FWCI
- 178.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Philosophy & Technology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Universiteit van Tilburg
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Cybernetics and Technology in Society
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- AI hallucination, distributed cognition, AI psychosis, generative AI, human-AI interaction, delusions, self-narrative, memory distortion, chatbots, cognitive artefacts, ChatGPT
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
