Material Culture and Structural Violence: Reframing Evidence of the Social Gradient in Industrial Contexts

Analysis of health-related material culture from house lots in two different sections of Eckley Miners' Village shows evidence of the social gradient in the quality and quantity of medical ephemera in the archaeological record.

“Through an analysis of health-related material culture from house lots in two different sections of Eckley Miners’ Village, evidence of the social gradient can be seen in the quality and quantity of medical ephemera present in the archaeological record.”

Less than a year before his passing, Anthony made an application to participate in a Jefferson Medical College Hospital study for research on/treatment of silicosis (black lung disease).

“Less than a year before his passing, Anthony made an application to participate in a Jefferson Medical College Hospital study for research on/treatment of silicosis (black lung disease) (Anthracite Heritage Museum 1960a).”

• cites Anthracite Heritage Museum 1960aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Census records from the 1920s show George and Mary as living at 9 Back Street with George's parents and siblings.

“Census records from the 1920s show George and Mary as living at 9 Back Street with George’s parents and siblings (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1920, 1930, 1940).”

Anthony Sulkosky's application materials to the Anthracite Health and Welfare Funds indicate that he experienced coughing fits for up to 7 hours a day.

“Additionally, Anthony Sulkosky’s application materials to the Anthracite Health and Welfare Funds (Anthracite Heritage Museum 1960a) indicate that he experienced coughing fits for up to 7 h. a day.”

• cites Anthracite Heritage Museum 1960aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

104 Main Street had a high frequency of intact Bumstead's vials compared to the very few fragmented pieces of Bumstead's vials recovered from 38 Main Street.

“The primary difference between sites, when it comes to the presence of vermifuge bottles, is that 104 Main Street had a high frequency of intact Bumstead’s vials compared to the very few fragmented pieces of Bumstead’s vials that were recovered from 38 Main Street.”

According to the federal censuses, the Ondeck family was living at 38 Back Street in both 1930 and 1940.

“According to the federal censuses, the Ondeck family was living at 38 Back Street in both 1930 and 1940.”

Health-related artifacts manufactured and deposited prior to the 1920s-1940s period of occupation at 38 Back Street are made up primarily of chemical- and patent-medicine bottles.

“Potential health-related artifacts that were manufactured and deposited prior to the 1920s–1940s period of occupation differ significantly in that they are made up primarily of chemical- and patent-medicine bottles.”

Since archaeological excavations first began at Eckley Miners' Village in 1986, there have been a total of 13 archaeological excavations and surveys that have identified 58 archaeological sites.

“Since archaeological excavations first began at Eckley Miners’ Village in 1986 (Parrington and Zatz 1986), there have been a total of 13 archaeological excavations and surveys that have identified 58 archaeological sites.”

• cites Parrington and Zatz 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

There are stark differences in material evidence of how pain, injury, and illness may have been treated between 38 Back Street and 104 Main Street.

“However, there are some stark differences in regard to material evidence of how pain, injury, and illness may have been treated.”

The author was unable to identify any recordation of George Ondeck as an applicant for any type of UMWA silicosis or disability aid.

“Despite George Ondeck being a miner, similar to Anthony Sulkosky, I have been unable to identify any recordation of Ondeck as an applicant for any type of UMWA silicosis or disability aid.”

Even when one was a member of a union, access to certain treatments or benefits was not guaranteed, as evidenced by the vast number of rejected aid applications in UMWA archival materials.

“Not only that, but, even when one was a member of a union, access to certain treatments or benefits was not guaranteed—as is evidenced by the vast number of rejected aid applications in UMWA archival materials.”

No brand and/or product information could be discerned for bottles with a mean manufacturing date within the 1920s-1940s period of occupation at 38 Back Street.

“No brand and/or product information for the bottles with a mean manufacturing date falling within the time period for which former residents can be definitively identified (1920s–1940s) could be discerned from the fragmented collections.”

Within the archaeological assemblage recovered from 104 Main Street there are a number of artifacts that could be relevant to the recorded health issues Anthony Sulkosky faced as an anthracite coal miner.

“Within the archaeological assemblage recovered from 104 Main Street there are a number of artifacts that could be relevant to the recorded health issues Anthony Sulkosky faced as an anthracite coal miner.”

The only identifiable alcohol-related artifact from 38 Back Street was a beer tankard with a mean manufacturing date of 1905.

“The only identifiable alcohol-related artifact from 38 Back Street was a beer tankard with a mean manufacturing date of 1905.”

Vials of Bumstead's Worm Syrup were found at both sites.

“Common health-related artifacts found at both sites are vials of Bumstead’s Worm Syrup.”

Eckley Miners' Village is a coal-mining company town organized with four distinct housing areas that correlate historically with the socioeconomic statuses of the jobs held at the colliery.

“As a coal-mining company town organized with four distinct housing areas that correlate historically with the socioeconomic statuses of the jobs held at the colliery, Eckley Miners’ Village provides a case study to explore how these health disparities were lived with and treated by residents of the industrial company town.”

• cites Henry 1860Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Coal mining historically exposed laborers to environmental and occupational health hazards that resulted in injury, illness, and/or physical disability.

“Coal mining is an industry that historically has exposed laborers to a variety of environmental and occupational health hazards that have resulted in injury, illness, and/or physical disability.”

• cites Fisher 1944 sourceCheck pending
• cites Derickson 1998Not matched

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• cites Laney and Weissman 2014 sourceCheck pending

Factors beyond individual control limit the ability of individuals to make choices that can limit or prevent health risks.

“These factors range anywhere from infrastructure to socioeconomic status (as well as other social and political obstacles) and limit the ability of individuals to make choices that can limit or prevent health risks.”

The health hazards of coal mining did not impact all colliery workers and their families equally.

“These health hazards, however, did not impact all laborers involved in coal mining equally.”

• Also stated in: § Introduction · plain

  “These risks, however, did not impact all colliery workers and their families equally.”

Immigration or holding immigrant status is a social determinant of health-a socially and politically constructed health disadvantage rather than a natural state of health inferiority.

“As argued by Castañeda et al. (2015), immigration/holding immigrant status is a factor that can have both social and economic impacts on an individual and can be considered a social determinant of health—i.e., a socially and politically constructed health disadvantage rather than a natural state of health inferiority (Marmot 2006).”

• cites Castañeda et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Marmot 2006 sourceCheck pending

In both the past and the present, access to health care, medical treatments, and perceptions of those with diseases such as black lung are influenced by factors beyond individual control, including infrastructure and socioeconomic status.

“In both the past and the present, access to health care, various medical treatments, and perceptions of those with diseases, such as black lung—as well as other health hazards facing coal miners and their families—are all influenced by factors beyond the control of the individual.”

• cites Willen 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Holmes and Castañeda 2016 sourceCheck pending
• cites Horton 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

As early as 1860, Matthew Henry describes the general settlement of Eckley as possibly "the most complete of any mining town in the State."

“As early as 1860, just six years after the establishment of the village, Matthew Henry (1860:368), while writing a local history of the Lehigh Valley, describes the general settlement of the village as possibly “the most complete of any mining town in the State.””

• cites Henry 1860:368Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Applying the concept of the social gradient has particular use in the analysis of company towns due to their formulaic design.

“Applying the concept of the social gradient has particular use in the analysis of company towns due to their formulaic design.”

Quality of care continues to be reliant on membership in a preferred group.

“Quality of care continues to be reliant on membership in a preferred group.”

Listerine was sold as a surgical disinfectant and remedy for communicable diseases ranging from diphtheria, dysentery, and ringworm to smallpox and gonorrhea in early 20th-century advertisements.

“Advertisements from the early 20th century indicate that Listerine was also sold as a surgical disinfectant and remedy for communicable diseases ranging from diphtheria, dysentery, and ringworm to smallpox and gonorrhea (Old Main Artifacts 2011; Emery 2012; National Museum of American History 2018).”

• cites Old Main Artifacts 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Emery 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites National Museum of American History 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The incorporation of new immigrants and Blacks into the working class employed in industrial manufacturing and extraction was met with suspicion and resentment by native-born white Americans who felt that these populations were backward and unable to assimilate to Anglo, Protestant norms.

“The incorporation of new immigrants and Blacks into the working class employed in industrial manufacturing and extraction was met with suspicion and resentment by native-born white Americans who felt that these populations were backward and unable to assimilate to the Anglo, Protestant norms that characterize(d) American nativism (Barrett and Roediger 1997).”

• cites Barrett and Roediger 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

These systems that highlight various avenues for professional health care, despite operating long before the current medical infrastructure, are similar to the insurance-based systems seen today.

“These systems that highlight various avenues for professional health care, despite operating long before the current medical infrastructure, are similar to the insurance-based systems seen today.”

Henry (1860) detailed four sections of Eckley that correlated with grade, meaning the socioeconomic status of the job an individual held at the colliery.

“He goes on to detail the four sections of the town that correlated with grade (meaning the socioeconomic status of the job an individual held at the colliery).”

• cites Henry 1860:368Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The social norms of the time, paired with brand-specific marketing, speak to issues of bodily autonomy, female agency, and child rearing in the section of Eckley Miners' Village that was home to those lowest in the labor hierarchy.

“While it is impossible to know whether this particular bottle of Lysol had been used for vaginal douching or other functions, the social norms of the time, paired with the brand-specific marketing, speak to issues of bodily autonomy, female agency, and child rearing in the section of Eckley Miners’ Village that was home to those lowest in the labor hierarchy.”

By 1910, two-thirds of workers in 21 major manufacturing and mining industries were either new Southern and Eastern European immigrants or native-born American Blacks.

“By 1910, two-thirds of workers in 21 major manufacturing and mining industries were either new Southern and Eastern European immigrants or native-born American Blacks (Gutman 1973).”

• cites Gutman 1973 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In both past and present these structures systematically leave people out.

“Regardless, in both past and present these structures systematically leave people out.”

At Eckley Miners' Village, new immigrants, women, and children held some of the most vulnerable positions, primarily based on perceptions of usefulness regarding industrial labor.

“At Eckley Miners’ Village, new immigrants, women, and children held some of the most vulnerable positions—primarily based on perceptions of usefulness regarding industrial labor.”

There are four primary layouts for company towns: grid, linear, convergent, and fragmented.

“As demonstrated by Francaviglia (1991), there are four primary layouts for company towns that include:”

• cites Francaviglia 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The normalization of suffering based on structural factors creates a social, political, and economic hierarchy that privileges people with specific traits over others.

“The normalization of suffering based on structural factors creates a hierarchy socially, politically, and economically that privileges people with specific traits (i.e., appearance, cognitive status, affect, cultural capital, occupation, etc.) over others.”

The patterned nature of suffering produced by structural factors creates a perception of inevitability and normalization in the populations most affected.

“The patterned nature of this suffering produces a perception of inevitability and normalization in the populations most affected by it.”

By 1911, at least five women had died of Lysol poisoning while conducting uterine irrigation.

“Tone (2001) indicates that, by 1911, at least five women had died of Lysol poisoning while conducting uterine irrigation.”

• cites Tone (2001)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Despite the theoretical feasibility of access to the company doctor through payroll deductions, in practice many families at Eckley Miners' Village, particularly those on the lower rungs of the social ladder, were unable to afford additional fees and treatment costs incurred by using the "prepaid" company-doctors' services.

“Despite the theoretical feasibility of having a certain level of access to the company doctor due to the regular payroll deductions from colliery workers’ wages to pay for the doctor’s services, in practice many families were unable to afford the additional fees and treatment costs that could be incurred by utilizing the “prepaid” company-doctors’ services—particularly those on the lower rungs of”

• cites Weaver 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Those at the lower end of the social gradient at Eckley Miners' Village faced a double burden of disease.

“Since alcoholism has been identified by various parties since the 19th century as a disease that can have debilitating and deadly effects (Levine 1984), it can be argued that those at the lower end of the social gradient at Eckley Miners’ Village faced a double burden of disease.”

This specific combination of a shot and a beer is also noted in Dublin's (1998) oral histories from the anthracite coal region as a routine part of a colliery worker's day.

“This specific combination of a shot and a beer is also noted in Dublin’s (1998) oral histories from the anthracite coal region as a routine part of a colliery worker’s day.”

• cites Dublin 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Prioritizing laborers' health and well-being over the broader well-being of the communities created by collieries reflects the hierarchical systems embedded within various facets of colliery towns such as Eckley Miners' Village.

“Prioritizing laborers’ health and well-being over the broader well-being of the communities created by collieries reflects the hierarchical systems embedded within various facets of colliery towns such as Eckley Miners’ Village.”

The social gradient implies that, in lower grades of colliery work, which received lower wages, individuals had a lesser ability to obtain professional medical treatment from the company doctor provided.

“The concept of the social gradient is particularly significant in relationship to health at Eckley Miners’ Village and, by extension, other coal-mining patch towns in northeastern Pennsylvania because it implies that, in lower grades of colliery work (which received lower wages), individuals had a lesser ability to obtain professional medical treatment from the company doctor provided.”

Listerine would have been a product much more vital to a miner's household than it may initially appear, given the risks of skin laceration faced by colliery workers.

“Considering the numerous ways by which colliery workers faced risks of skin laceration, Listerine would have been a product much more vital to a miner’s household than it may initially appear.”

The arrival of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe was viewed by mine bosses and proprietors as an opportunity to save on wages and boost profits by paying new immigrant laborers less than their Western European and native-born American counterparts.

“The arrival of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe was viewed by mine bosses and proprietors as an opportunity to save on wages and boost profits by paying new immigrant laborers less than their Western European and native-born American counterparts—a sentiment that was shared by manufacturers across the United States at the turn of the 20th century (Barrett 1987; Blatz 1994; Howard 20”

• cites Barrett 1987Not matched

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• cites Blatz 1994Not matched

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• cites Howard 2001Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

From the built environment to social interactions in the workplace, to retail options, coal-mining companies established systems in which those on the lower rungs of the labor hierarchy faced greater obstacles for avoiding disease, injury, and death.

“From the built environment to social interactions in the workplace, to even retail options, coal-mining companies established systems in which those on the lower rungs of the labor hierarchy faced greater obstacles for avoiding disease, injury, and death.”

Former residents of 38 Back Street chose to treat their ailments through an outside source (e.g., patent medicines) instead of seeking treatment from the company doctor for whom they had already paid.

“Yet instead of seeking treatment from a service for which, technically, they had already paid, they chose to treat their ailments through an outside source (that, in some cases, may have been the company store).”

Using U.S. federal census records, colliery accident records, applications to the Anthracite Health and Welfare Funds, and company-doctor patient cards together, it is possible to identify the households in Eckley Miners' Village where residents were living with a physical disability, debilitating illness, or both.

“Using these records together it is possible to identify the households in Eckley Miners’ Village where residents were living with a physical disability, debilitating illness, or both.”

This increased access was influenced by their role in the colliery as sources of cheap labor.

“This increased access was influenced by their role in the colliery as sources of cheap labor.”

Mining companies held an exorbitant amount of power over the health of their employees, embodying a kind of bio-power.

“Embodying a kind of bio-power (Foucault 1990) over colliery workers and their families, it becomes increasingly clear that mining companies had an exorbitant amount of power over the health of their employees.”

• cites Foucault 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In the case of immigrant populations, ethnicity, gender, and legal status act as factors that limit choices impacting individual and community health.

“In the case of immigrant populations, ethnicity, gender, and legal status also act as factors that limit choices that impact individual (and, by extension, community) health (Cartwright and Manderson 2011; Quesada et al. 2011; Castañeda et al. 2015).”

• cites Cartwright and Manderson 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Quesada et al. 2011 sourceCheck pending
• cites Castañeda et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The proportions of patent- versus ethical-medicine bottles can provide information about how families at both ends of the social ladder chose to allocate scarce funds to treat ailments.

“For example, the proportions of patent- vs. ethical-medicine (i.e., prescribed or medically regulated) bottles can provide information about how families at both ends of the social ladder chose to allocate scarce funds in order to treat a variety of ailments.”

As Weaver (2011:25) notes, most miners turned to alcohol to deal with the symptoms of diseases such as black lung.

“As Weaver (2011:25) notes, most miners turned to alcohol to deal with the symptoms of diseases such as black lung.”

• cites Weaver 2011:25Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Within a structural-violence framework, individual choices are limited by factors such as racism, sexism, political violence, and poverty.

“Within a structural-violence framework, individual choices are limited by such factors as racism, sexism, political violence, and poverty (Farmer 1996:335).”

• cites Farmer 1996:335Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The described abuse and dependence on alcohol among miners stemmed from or was influenced by the suffering caused by a debilitating disease such as black lung.

“Seeking to ease pain, it can be argued that the described abuse and dependence on alcohol stemmed from or was influenced by the suffering caused by a debilitating disease such as black lung.”

The socioeconomic correlation between career and house grade in the company town can be viewed as a material manifestation of the social gradient.

“This socioeconomic correlation between career and house grade in the company town can be viewed as a material manifestation of the social gradient.”

Children employed by the colliery held a more privileged position in regard to access to the company doctor than did their family members who worked in the home or elsewhere.

“It is important to note, however, that children employed by the colliery did hold a more privileged position in regard to access to the company doctor than did their family members who worked in the home or elsewhere.”

The gaps in these structures that systematically leave certain groups disproportionately vulnerable have become even more pronounced as the world continues to grapple with the ongoing impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.

“The gaps in these structures that systematically leave certain groups disproportionately vulnerable have become even more pronounced as the world continues to grapple with the ongoing impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.”

The shrinking population density following the downturn of the coal-mining industry in the 20th century influenced the closure of many hospitals that had been built decades earlier, when the coal-mining industry was thriving.

“Emphasizing one of the structural roots of health disparities in northeastern Pennsylvania (particularly in small, rural towns), Boden (2020) highlights how the shrinking population density following the downturn of the coal-mining industry in the 20th century influenced the closure of many hospitals that had been built decades earlier, when the coal-mining industry was thriving.”

• cites Boden (2020)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

With the reduction of institutions providing health care in the region over time, other structural vulnerabilities, such as race, gender, and immigration status are exacerbated in the pursuit of health care.

“With the reduction of institutions providing health care in the region over time, other structural vulnerabilities, such as race, gender, and immigration status are exacerbated in the pursuit of health care.”

The decline of the coal-mining industry in the region is one of the roots of the area's current health issues.

“Like Boden (2020), Huang (2019) points to the decline of the coal-mining industry in the region as one of the roots of the area’s current health issues.”

• cites Boden (2020)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Huang (2019)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the anthracite coal region was already identified as one of the sickest and unhappiest regions in the entire commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

“Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the anthracite coal region was already identified as one of the sickest and unhappiest regions in the entire commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Huang 2019).”

• cites Huang 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.