Cited by 276Language Development and DisordersNeurobiology of Language and BilingualismEFL/ESL Teaching and Learning

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The effects of learning two languages on levels of metalinguistic awareness

Galambos, Sylvia Joseph, Goldin-Meadow, Susan·1990·Cognition

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Abstract

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a bilingual environment-the juxtaposition of two language systems learned simultaneously-enhances children's awareness of the language(s) they are learning to speak. The study explores the development of metalinguistic awareness at three different levels of explicit knowledge about language in monolingual children, and assesses the effects of a bilingual experience on this developmental process. To observe the development of metalinguistic awareness and to test the bilingual hypothesis, we compared metalinguistic skills in 32 Spanish-speaking and 32 English-speaking monolinguals and in 32 Spanish-English bilinguals aged 4:5 to 8:0. The Spanish and English metalinguistic tests each contained 15 different ungrammatical constructions (e.g., "Steven and Robert is a brother") and 15 grammatically correct "fillers." For each item, the children were asked in the appropriate language to note whether the construction was correct or incorrect, to correct the errors they noted, and to explain why those errors were wrong. We found that the monolingual children followed the same sequence in acquiring the ability to detect, to correct, and to explain grammatical errors; in particular, they progressed from a content-based orientation to a form-based orientation to language at each of the three levels. However, we noted different outcomes in terms of the types of grammatical constructions that were easy for monolinguals to master at each level-the constructions that were easy to detect and correct were distinct from those that were easy to explain. The bilingual experience was found to speed the transition from a content-based to a form-based approach to language at certain levels of awareness (detection and correction), but had less of an effect on explanations. Moreover, the bilingual experience did not appear to affect the types of grammatical constructions that were easy to master at any of the three levels. These data suggest that the experience of learning two languages hastens the development of certain metalinguistic skills in young children, but does not alter the course of that development. Thus, while learning two languages may enhance a speaker's "ear" for regularities of form, it does not appear to augment his grammatical "mind" for understanding those regularities.

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Modirkhamene, S. (2008) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 3
The Development of Pragmatic Differentiation Skills in Preschool-Aged Bilingual Children.
Tare, M. (2008) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 3
INPUT FACTORS, LANGUAGE EXPERIENCES AND METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS IN BILINGUAL CHILDREN
Cohen, C. (2011) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford) · Cited by 3
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN METALINGUISTIC AND SPELLING DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LANGUAGES: EVIDENCE FROM ENGLISH AND HEBREW
Bindman, M. (1997) · IOE EPrints · Cited by 3
The Acquisition of English Adjective Placement on the Early Acquisition of Bilingual Indonesian Language - English Child
Yanuar, I. D. (2023) · Journal of English Language and Culture · doi:10.30813/jelc.v14i1.4505 · Cited by 2
Réflexions métasyntaxiques formulées par des élèves de 6 e année apprenant l'anglais langue seconde
Fortier, V., & Simard, D. (2008) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658410802146701 · Cited by 2
“…lorsqu’on leur demande de fournir une règle afin d’expliquer une erreur ce qui les mène souvent à fournir des descriptions de l’erreur ou des explications concernant le contenu de l’énoncé plutôt qu’une explication de la règle (p.ex., Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Lightbown & Spada, 2000).”
Background
Syntactic awareness skills in English among children who speak Slavic or Chinese languages as a first language and English as a second language
Lipka, O. (2019) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/1367006918812186 · Cited by 2
Transfer in L3 cognate language acquisition: The role of language background on instructed L3 Portuguese acquisition
Child, M. W. (2019) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2017-0113 · Cited by 2
Can speakers of different languages be saying the same thing? Influences of non-native language exposure and explicit comparison on children’s language awareness
Rojo, D. P., Echols, C. H., & Griffin, Z. M. (2022) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716422000248 · Cited by 2
“…on children’s metalinguistic skills, children in the 5 to 7 age range who were bilingual or had multilingual exposure outperformed monolingual children with limited exposure to other languages (Bialystok, 1988; Dautel & Kinzler, 2018; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Sutherland & Cimpian, 2015).”
Background
Cognitive-linguistic skills and reading and writing in Korean Hangul, Chinese Hanja, and English among Korean children
Cho, J. (2018) · Bilingual processing and acquisition · doi:10.1075/bpa.7.19cho · Cited by 2
Second language acquisition in French immersion in Canada: Characteristics and implications
Safty, A. (1990) · Language Culture and Curriculum · doi:10.1080/07908319009525085 · Cited by 2
Re-Positioning Latino Heritage Language Learners: The Case of one adolescent's experiences in two different pedagogical spaces.
Merrills, K. Z. (2015) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/m2k91d · Cited by 2
Understanding the descriptive/metalinguistic dichotomy: How preschool children derive intended meanings of negation
Zhang, X. X., & Zhou, P. (2025) · Language Acquisition · doi:10.1080/10489223.2025.2501932 · Cited by 1
“This advantage was attributed to the more advanced metalinguistic awareness typically seen in bilingual children (e.g., Bruck & Genesee 1995, Chen et al. 2004, Galambos & Goldin-Meadow 1990).”
Bilingualism Enhances Metalinguistic Awareness in Autism: Extending the Two‐Dimensional Grammaticality Judgment Task
Wolfer, P., Baumeister, F., & Durrleman, S. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70173 · Cited by 2
“Although managing two linguistic systems may support grammatical rule abstraction (Bialystok 1988; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990), factors such as richness of input may also contribute to metalinguistic performance.”
The interplay between attentional control and language task schemas: Progressive adaptation of attentional control in interpreting
Dong, Y. (2026) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2026.105785 · Cited by 1
Linguaggio e cognizione: implicazioni dal bilinguismo
Bonifacci, P., Cappello, G., & Bellocchi, S. (2012) · Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) · doi:10.4396/77 · Cited by 1
Vieraskielinen opetus, kognitio ja oppiminen
Olkkonen, S. (2009) · Virittäjä · doi:10.23982/vir.4205 · Cited by 1
Language Intervention From A Bilingual Mindset
Thordardottir, E. T. (2005) · Perspectives on Communication Disorders and Sciences in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Populations · doi:10.1044/cds12.2.17 · Cited by 1
Clinical Issues: Language Intervention From A Bilingual Mindset
Thordardottir, E. T. (2005) · Perspectives on Language Learning and Education · doi:10.1044/lle12.2.17 · Cited by 1
BILINGUISMO ESCOLAR OU FAMILIAR? NOVAS EVIDÊNCIAS APONTAM PARA A IMPORTÂNCIA DO CONTEXTO ESCOLAR NO DESENVOLVIMENTO DO CONTROLE INIBITÓRIO
Brentano, L. D. S., & Fontes, A. B. A. D. L. (2011) · Organon · doi:10.22456/2238-8915.28832 · Cited by 1
Verb Production Ability in Korean-French Bilingual Children Through Their Two Languages
황순희 (2016) · Discourse and Cognition · doi:10.15718/discog.2016.23.1.251 · Cited by 1
La evaluación de lenguas en un colegio plurilingüe: Un estudio de caso de las creencias pedagógicas del profesorado
Mate, Z. (2017) · Bellaterra Journal of Teaching & Learning Language & Literature · doi:10.5565/rev/jtl3.724 · Cited by 1
L’impact de l’exposition bilingue sur l’acquisition du vocabulaire dans un contexte francophone minoritaire
Gervais, K. L., & Mayer-Crittenden, C. (2018) · Diversity of Research in Health Journal · doi:10.28984/drhj.v2i0.222 · Cited by 1
“…Nomanbhoy, 1993), les compétences en raisonnement (Booth, Waxman & Huang, 2005 ; Nippold, Erskine & Freed, 1988), les compétences métalinguistiques (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ; Yelland, Pollard & Mercuri, 1993) et l’acquisition de la lecture et de l’écriture (Metsala & Walley, 1998 ; Wise,…”
Sprachentwicklung und Sprachbewusstheit
Akbulut, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-39229-1_3 · Cited by 1
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS OF ADOLESCENT MULTILINGUALS IN CEBU CITY
Maxilom, R. M. R., & Tecson, C. A. (2009) · Philippine quarterly of culture and society · Cited by 1
Particularized Conversational Implicatures
Zufferey, S., Moeschler, J., & Reboul, A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316410875.004 · Cited by 1
Historical Development and State of the Art in Experimental Research on the “Bilingual Advantage/Disadvantage”
Jansen, S., del Moral, S. H., Barzen, J. S., Reimann, P., & Opolka, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87063-8_2 · Cited by 1
“The impact of bilingualism on Language and Literacy Development”
Rehman, M. I. A. (2022) · International Journal of Research Publications · doi:10.47119/ijrp100961320222926 · Cited by 1
Early Multilingualism and Language Awareness
Houwer, A. D. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02325-0_6-2 · Cited by 1

Authors: Galambos, S. J., & Goldin-Meadow, S.
Affiliations: Yale University (US)
Corresponding author: Galambos, Sylvia Joseph
Venue: Cognition
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1990-01
Volume: 34
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-56
ISSN: 0010-0277 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/0010-0277(90)90030-n
OpenAlex: W2021609983
Cited by: 276
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 2.78
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Cognition (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5t32mh016127-07)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH16127)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
Keywords: metalinguistic awareness, bilingualism, second language acquisition, grammatical error detection, error correction, error explanation, Spanish-English bilinguals, monolingual children, language development
MeSH terms: Awareness, Child, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Connecticut, El Salvador, Female, Humans, Language, Language Development, Linguistics, Male, United States

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The effects of learning two languages on levels of metalinguistic awareness

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