The effects of learning two languages on levels of metalinguistic awareness

“…to monolingual children (e.g. Bialystok, 1991; Bowey, 1988; Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Campbell & Sais, 1995; Cummins, 1978; Feldman & Shen, 1971; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Gathercole, 1997; Hakes, 1980); and how early bilingual experience impacts children's later linguistic activities,…”

“This conclusion is consistent with research conducted prior to 2000 (Cromdal, 1999; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“This processing advantage has been found across several domains of thought, including language tasks (Bialystok, 1988; Cromdal, 1999; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ), concepts of quantity (Bialystok and Codd, 1997; Saxe, 1988), spatial concepts (Bialystok and Majumder, 1998), and problem solving (Kessler and Quinn,…”

“Research comparing monolinguals and bilinguals on metalinguistic tasks reported just such bilingual advantages (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992).”

“…who are raised with two languages show advantages over monolingual peers in two domains – metalinguistic awareness (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Cummins, 1978; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992) and nonverbal executive control (Bialystok & Martin, 2004; Bialystok &…”

“Previous research on the metalinguistic skills of pre-school and school-age bilingual and monolingual children (Galambos and Goldin-Meadow, 1990) has shown that children find it especially difficult to provide grammaticality judgements for sentences where they have to integrate more than one source…”

“Research by Bialystok (1986, 1987, 1991), Diaz (1985), Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990), Yelland, Pollard, and Mercury (1993), and Ricciardelli (1992a, 1992b) found bilinguals to have greater explicit knowledge of the language.”

“…comes from evidence that bilingualism enhances metalinguistic ability, including word awareness (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Cummins, 1978; Edwards & Christopherson, 1988; Ricciardelli, 1992; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993) and syntactic awareness (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”

“These results are very similar to the findings reported by Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) for sentences in which there was a mismatch between a temporal adverbial adjunct (e.g. “yesterday” = past) and the tense of the auxiliary verb (“am” = present).”

“An even more precise measure of analy- sis skills should be obtained by asking the subjects to explain why a certain grammatical detail (e.g., an inflection) is wrong (cf. Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“…executive control to resolve conflict between form and meaning gives bilinguals an advantage on metalinguistic tasks (Bialystok, 1988; Cromdal, 1999; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) but also on nonverbal tasks where no explicit linguistic processing is involved (reviewed in forthcoming discussion).”

“…& Christophersen, 1988), tasks requiring the manipulation of sublexical phonological elements (e.g., Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Campbell & Sais, 1995; Titone, 1994), and tasks requiring the detection of ambiguity and grammaticality (e.g., Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”

“Therefore, it is similar to tasks used in the original literature that demonstrated bilingual advantages in metalinguistic knowledge, such as the correction of grammatical errors (e.g., Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“…awareness), and are more flexible when learning novel word meanings (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok & Barac, 2012a; Byers-Heinlein & Werker, 2009; Cummings, 1987; Davidson & Tell, 2005; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1989; Hakuta, 1987; Healey & Skarabela, 2008; Ianco-Worrall, 1972).”

“The transience of bilingual effects reported in this study corroborates previous research on bilingualism with respect to phonological awareness and other aspects of metalinguistic awareness, such as word awareness (eg, Hakuta & Diaz, 1985 ; Yelland et al, 1993 ), and syntactic awareness ( Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 19…”

“As children grow older, monolingual children often catch up in aspects such as concept of print and concept of word and syntactic awareness, which may be the result of either maturation or reading instruction (Diaz, 1985; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993).”

“…(Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok, 1991, 2001; Cummins, 1978; Ianco-Worrall, 1972; Jessner, 1999; Thomas, 1992), and better inhibitory control (Bialystok, Majumder & Martin, 2003; Bialystok & Viswanathan, 2009; Bruck & Genesee, 1995; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Green, 1998; Michael & Gollan, 2005).”

“Indeed, bilingual experience appears to enhance children’s metalinguistic abilities compared with monolingual experience (Bialystok, 1988; Cummins, 1978; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Rosenblum & Pinker, 1983).”

“…Marian, 2009; Scheele, Leseman, & Mayo, 2010) and that bilingual children tend to outperform monolingual children on tasks tapping attentional control (Adesope, Lavin, Thompson, & Ungerleider, 2010) and metalinguistic knowledge (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yow & Markman, 2011).”

“But it is only with direct and systematic instruction that the learners will progress from a content-based perspective to one of form and function and the gradual restructuring of these two languages (Byrne, 1996; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ).”

“There is evidence that metalinguistic awareness develops more readily in children who learn a second language (Ben-Zeev, 1977; Bialystok, 1986; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) and that it can be activated through classroom activities that invite learners to make L1/L2 comparisons (Kupferberg &…”

“…abilities such as phonological awareness and reading skills (Bialystok, Majunder, & Martin, 2003; D’Angiulli, Siegel, & Sera, 2001; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993), grammatical development (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990), and writing skills and fluency (Ransdell, Arecco, & Levy, 2001).”

“…to morphological awareness, most studies have demonstrated the transfer of morphosyntactic knowledge only across languages such as English–Spanish (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990), English–French (Deacon et al., 2007), and English–Hebrew (Geva, 1995), where the two languages share a number of…”

“…1994; Nippold, Erskine, & Freed, 1988; Smith, Jones, Landau, Gershkoff-Stowe, & Samuelson, 2002), metalinguistic capacity (e.g., Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercuri, 1993), and literacy acquisition (e.g., Metsala & Walley, 1998; Nation & Snowling, 1998;…”

“Second, the acquisition of two languages during early childhood brings demonstrable cognitive, language, literacy, and social benefits (Bialystock 1988; Bialystock and Feng 2009; Cummins 1993; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990; Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto 2008; Scheele, Leseman, and Mayo 2010).”

“As far as syntactic awareness is concerned, Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) and Demont (2001) demonstrated that bilingual experience favourably influences children’s performance on grammatical judgement and/or grammatical correction tasks.”

“…bilingual children, in particular, have more advanced word and syntactic awareness and usually show an advantage in morphological and phonological awareness too (Bialystok et al. 2014; Diaz 1985; Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990; Melloni and Vender 2020; Vender et al. 2021; Yelland et al. 1993).”

“6Metalinguistic awareness involves the ability to think explicitly about aspects of language and solve linguistic problems, such as the detection of ambiguity and grammaticality (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”

“Hale and Tager-Flusberg (2003) carried out a similar training study investigating the role of language in theory-of-mind development. Sixty 3-year-olds who had failed false-belief and sentential complement preliminary tests were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) a false-belief training group, (b) a sen…”

“According to Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990), there is a normal course of development of metalinguistic awareness for monolingual speakers, and explicit analysis of linguistic knowledge is at the end of this path.”

“In some cases, bilingual children have demonstrated metalinguistic awareness skills earlier than monolinguals in tasks such as grammaticality judgments (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Galambos & Hakuta, 1988).”

“The English and Chinese SA tests were developed by the authors based on an oral test used in Galambos and Goldin-Meadow (1990) and a written test designed by Author (2002).”

“Bilingual children have shown enhanced metalinguistic skills on many different tasks, including making grammatical judgments (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990) and measures that require awareness of the arbitrary nature of words, such as Piaget’s sun–moon task (Bialystok, 1988).”

“Identical findings were obtained between Spanish and English (Durgunoglu, Mir, & Arino-Martl, 2002; Dussias & Scaltz, 2008; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“For instance, research shows that bilingual experience can increase cognitive control [19,20], enhance meta-linguistic awareness [21,22], delay the effects of Alzheimer’s disease in older adults [23,24], and improve perspective-taking ability in children [25,26].”

“…awareness in several domains (Cummins 1980; Ricciardelli 1992; Bialystok 1993, 2001 and Sanz 2012 for a review), including word awareness (cf. Cummins 1980), syntactic awareness (cf. Galambos and Goldin-Meadow 1990) and phonological awareness (cf. Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin 2003).”

“…in this study perceive, EAL children do perform better in MFL than their monolingual peers, it may be due to a potential development of enhanced metalinguistic awareness, which gives them a greater ability to manipulate and control language (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Cenoz, 2013).”

“…and rules of language, which is very useful to them during the process of learning an additional language (Diaz, 1985; Eviatar & Ibrahim, 2000; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Jessner, 2006, 2008; Ransdell, Barbier, & Niit, 2006; Ricciardelli, 1992, 1993; Yelland, Pollard, & Mercury, 1993).”

“For instance, they learn to differentiate form from the meanings of linguistic codes at an early age compared to monolingual peers (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“…be the aspect of language that takes the longest to be acquired and depends on exposure to a variety of syntactic structures (Berkes & Flynn, 2013; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Rowland et al., 2012); therefore, additional opportunities to practise those structures are beneficial in a preschool…”

“ness has been implicated to positively affect children’s later reading abilities (Casali & Louis-Alexandre, 2000; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990 ).”

“and its referent (Bialystok, 1988; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Uri, 2001).”

“…to use when speaking or writing their respective languages, their Applied Psycholinguistics 37:4 966 Rainey et al.: Executive functions and language brokering awareness of the grammatical structures of their languages may be enhanced (e.g., Davidson et al., 2010; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990).”

“…the role of explicit instruction, especially in literacy, and so on, and debate continues about all of these issues (see, for example, Benelli et al., 2006; Edwards & Kirkpatrick, 1999; Francis, 2002; Galambos & Goldin-Meadow, 1990; Gombert, 1992; KarmiloffSmith et al., 1996; Tunmer et al., 1984).”