Acquisition of cognitive skill
Abstract
A framework for skill acquisition is proposed in which there are two major stages in the development of a cognitive skill--a declarative stage in which facts about the skill domain are interpreted and a procedural stage in which the domain knowledge is embodied directly in procedures for performing the skill. This general framework has been instantiated in the ACT system in which facts are encoded in a propositional network and procedures are encoded as productions. Two types of interpretive procedures are described for converting facts in the declarative stage into behavior--general problem-solving procedures and analogy-forming procedures. Knowledge compilation is the process by which the skill transits from the declarative stage to the procedural stage. It consists of the subprocesses of composition which collapses sequences of productions into single productions and proceduralization which embeds factual knowledge into productions. Once proceduralized, further learning processes operate on the skill to make the production more selective in their range of applications. These learning processes include generalization, discrimination, and strengthening of productions. Comparisons are made to similar concepts from past learning theories. It is discussed how these learning mechanisms apply to produce the power law speed-up in processing time with practice. Much of the evidence for this theory of skill acquisition comes from work on acquisition of proof skills in geometry but other evidence is drawn from the literature on automatization, language acquisition, and category formation. (Author)
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Declarative and procedural learning are cognitive abilities underlying the acquisition of cognitive skills.
“In our study, we focused on declarative and procedural learning as cognitive abilities underlying the acquisition of cognitive skills (Anderson, 1982(Anderson, , 1983)).”
From Testing the three-stage model of second language skill acquisition (2025) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
In ACT-R, skill acquisition begins by acquiring declarative knowledge about a skill through instruction or observing someone else's performance.
“Skill acquisition in ACT-R begins by acquiring declarative knowledge about a skill through instruction or observing someone else's performance.”
From Testing the three-stage model of second language skill acquisition (2025) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
ACT-R includes a mechanism of declarative strengthening at work in the later two stages, which functions to increase the accuracy and speed of retrieving declarative knowledge.
“In fact, ACT-R includes a mechanism of declarative strengthening at work in the later two stages, which functions to increase the accuracy and speed of retrieving declarative knowledge (Anderson, 1982(Anderson, , 1983)).”
From Testing the three-stage model of second language skill acquisition (2025) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
Engaging in routine or familiar work tasks reinforces and refines what is already known.
“Drawing on cognitive perspectives, engaging in routine or familiar work tasks reinforces and refines what is already known (Anderson 1982).”
From Workplace participatory practices: Conceptualising workplaces as learning environments (2004) · cites this paper as Anderson 1982
Contemporary theories of skill acquisition are consistent with Galton's assumptions about basic unmodifiable capacities and with observations on the general course of professional development.
“Contemporary theories of skill acquisi- tion (Anderson, 1982 ; Fitts & Posner, 1967) are consistent with Galton's general assump- tions about basic unmodifiable capacities and with observations on the general course of professional development.”
From The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance (2006) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
Cognitive learning theories hold that in overcoming problems, new learning arises.
“Cognitive learning theories hold that in overcoming problems, new learning arises (Anderson 1982).”
From Workplace participatory practices: Conceptualising workplaces as learning environments (2004) · cites this paper as Anderson 1982
The effects of practice are greatest at early stages of learning, but they eventually reach asymptote.
“That is, the effects of practice are greatest at earlystages of learning, but theyeventuallyreach asymptote.”
From FREQUENCY EFFECTS IN LANGUAGE PROCESSING: A Review with Implications for Theories of Implicit and Explicit Language Acquisition (2002) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
This learning follows well-established principles of complex skill acquisition.
“It is a form of learning that follows well-established principles of the acquisition of complex skills (Anderson, 1982; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Taatgen, 2013).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Anderson, 1982
Cites
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335 · see citing works
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention.
Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.1.1 · Cited by 5,902 · see citing works
Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications
Anderson, J. R. (2014) · Cited by 4,121 · see citing works
Self-citationBrown, R. W. (1960) · Language · doi:10.2307/411065 · Cited by 3,525 · see citing works
Context theory of classification learning
Medin, D. L., & Schaffer, M. M. (1978) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.85.3.207 · Cited by 3,061 · see citing works
Controlled and automatic human information processing: I
Schneider, W. E., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977) · Cited by 2,228 · see citing works
Expert and Novice Performance in Solving Physics Problems
Larkin, J., McDermott, J. P., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.208.4450.1335 · Cited by 2,112 · see citing works
Anderson, J. R. (1976) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203780954 · Cited by 2,017 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory-scanning: mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments.
Sternberg, S. (1969) · PubMed · Cited by 1,949 · see citing works
Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice
Newell, A., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (2018) · Figshare · doi:10.1184/r1/6607199.v1 · Cited by 1,365 · see citing works
Brown, R. (1973) · Cited by 1,293 · see citing works
Mechanization in problem solving: The effect of Einstellung.
Luchins, A. S. (1942) · Psychological Monographs · doi:10.1037/h0093502 · Cited by 1,143 · see citing works
Toward a statistical theory of learning.
Estes, W. K. (1950) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0058559 · Cited by 1,016 · see citing works
Plans And The Structure Of Behavior
Galanter, & Eugène (1960) · Cited by 966 · see citing works
Adams, J. A., & Welford, A. T. (1970) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421343 · Cited by 862 · see citing works
Fitts, P. M. (1964) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4832-3145-7.50016-9 · Cited by 662 · see citing works
Accretion, Tuning and Restructuring: Three Modes of Learning
Rumelhart, D. E., & Norman, D. A. (1976) · doi:10.21236/ada030406 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Repair Theory: A Generative Theory of Bugs in Procedural Skills
Brown, J. S., & VanLehn, K. A. (1980) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog0404_3 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Melton, A. W. (1964) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 501 · see citing works
On the Reduction of Choice Reaction Times with Practice
Mowbray, G. H., & Rhoades, M. V. (1959) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470215908416282 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Snoddy, G. S. (1926) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0075814 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Abstraction of visual patterns.
Franks, J. J., & Bransford, J. D. (1971) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0031349 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Concept learning and the recognition and classification of exemplars
Hayes‐Roth, B., & Hayes-Roth, F. A. (1977) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(77)80054-6 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice
Newell, A., & Rosenbloom, P. S. (2018) · doi:10.1184/r1/6607196 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Knowledge Compilation: Mechanisms for the Automatization of Cognitive Skills.
Neves, D. M., & Anderson, J. R. (1980) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Self-citationReasoning, problem solving and decision processes : the problem space as a fundamental category
N. (2018) · KiltHub Repository · doi:10.1184/r1/6608837 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Maratsos, M. P. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Searching for Ten Targets Simultaneously
Neisser, U., Novick, R., & Lazar, R. (1963) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1963.17.3.955 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
On learning the grammatical order of words.
Braine, M. (1963) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/h0047696 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Manufacturing Progress Functions
Hirsch, W. Z. (1952) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.2307/1928465 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Memorial consequences of automatized encoding.
Kolers, P. A. (1975) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Learning & Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.1.6.689 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Klatzky, R. L., & Cotton, J. W. (1978) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 216 · see citing works
The effects of category generalizations and instance similarity on schema abstraction.
Elio, R., & Anderson, J. R. (1981) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.7.6.397 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Self-citationRetrieval of Information from Long-Term Memory
Anderson, J. R. (1983) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.6828877 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Self-citationRigidity of Behavior: A Variational Approach to the Effect of Einstellung
Pierce, I. R., Luchins, A. S., & Luchins, E. H. (1961) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419434 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
OPS: a domain-independent production system language
Forgy, C. L., & McDermott, J. P. (1977) · International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Continuous versus non-continuous interpretations of discrimination learning.
Spence, K. W. (1940) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0054336 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
A General Learning Theory and its Application to Schema Abstraction1
Anderson, J. R., Kline, P., & Beasley, C. M. (1979) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60085-7 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationInductive inference of VL decision rules
Larson, J. B., & Michalski, R. S. (1977) · ACM SIGART Bulletin · doi:10.1145/1045343.1045369 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Memory retrieval and central comparison times in information processing.
Briggs, G. E., & Blaha, J. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0026936 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
A Component Model for Stimulus Variables in Discrimination Learning
Burke, C. J., & Estes, W. K. (1957) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02289049 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Indefinite goals in well-structured problems.
Greeno, J. G. (1976) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.83.6.479 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
INDUCTIVE LEARNING OF RELATIONAL PRODUCTIONS
Vere, S. A. (1978) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-737550-2.50018-x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Theories of language acquisition
Vetter, H. J., & Howell, R. W. (1971) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/bf01066935 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Anderson, J. R., Kline, P., & Beasley, C. M. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003163145-21 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationTuning of search of the problem space for geometry proofs
Anderson, J. (1981) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationA Theory of the Acquisition of Cognitive Skills.
Anderson, J. R., Kline, P., & Beasley, C. M. (1978) · Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationApproaches to knowledge acquisition : the Instructable Production System Project
Rychener, M. D. (2018) · KiltHub Repository · doi:10.1184/r1/6603542 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Concept learning by feature value interval abstraction
Brown, D. J. (1977) · ACM SIGART Bulletin · doi:10.1145/1045343.1045375 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Sweller, J. (1988) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7 · Cited by 11,048 · see citing works
The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.3.363 · Cited by 9,564 · see citing works
Conflict monitoring and cognitive control
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.3.624 · Cited by 7,351 · see citing works
The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning1
SCHMIDT, R. W. (1990) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129 · Cited by 4,910 · see citing works
“Some authors theorize that all procedural knowledge develops from declarative knowledge and requires awareness in the early stages (Anderson 1982), while others do not (Lewicki et al. 1987; Reber et al. 1985).”
BackgroundA distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming.
Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.523 · Cited by 3,909 · see citing works
Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778 · Cited by 3,585 · see citing works
Bybee, J. (2010) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511750526 · Cited by 3,488 · see citing works
Toward an instance theory of automatization.
Logan, G. D. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.4.492 · Cited by 3,466 · see citing works
Games, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model
Garris, R. D., Ahlers, R. H., & Driskell, J. E. (2002) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878102238607 · Cited by 3,257 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2004) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-200410001-00022 · Cited by 2,988 · see citing works
Chan, D. K. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.234 · Cited by 2,981 · see citing works
On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control
Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.295 · Cited by 2,590 · see citing works
The representing brain: Neural correlates of motor intention and imagery
Jeannerod, M. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00034026 · Cited by 2,562 · see citing works
Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338 · Cited by 2,319 · see citing works
Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis
Hagger, M. S., Wood, C., Stiff, C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0019486 · Cited by 2,265 · see citing works
Ellis, N. C. (2002) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263102002024 · Cited by 2,230 · see citing works
A spreading activation theory of memory.
Anderson, J. R. (1983) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(83)90201-3 · Cited by 2,199 · see citing works
Self-citationCohen, J. D., Dunbar, K. N., & McClelland, J. L. (1990) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.332 · Cited by 2,128 · see citing works
Colquitt, J. A., LePine, J. A., & Noe, R. A. (2000) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.678 · Cited by 2,126 · see citing works
Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century
Pellegrino, J. W., & Hilton, M. L. (2012) · Cited by 2,038 · see citing works
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.2.311 · Cited by 1,831 · see citing works
Erev, I., & Roth, A. E. (1998) · American Economic Review · Cited by 1,794 · see citing works
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. (1989) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.657 · Cited by 2,177 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2006) · The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816796.038 · Cited by 1,629 · see citing works
Practice-related Changes in Human Brain Functional Anatomy during Nonmotor Learning
Raichle, M. E., Fiez, J. A., Videen, T. O., MacLeod, A.-M. K., Pardo, J. V., Fox, P. T., & Petersen, S. E. (1994) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/4.1.8 · Cited by 1,593 · see citing works
Parallel Networks that Learn to Pronounce English Text
B, T. J. S. A. (1987) · Cited by 1,537 · see citing works
A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface.
Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.4.843 · Cited by 1,470 · see citing works
Automaticity: A Theoretical and Conceptual Analysis.
Moors, A., & Houwer, J. D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297 · Cited by 1,422 · see citing works
Meyer, D. E., & Kieras, D. E. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.1.3 · Cited by 1,401 · see citing works
Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3629249 · Cited by 1,405 · see citing works
A Critical View of Driver Behavior Models: What Do We Know, What Should We Do?
Michon, J. A. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-2173-6_19 · Cited by 1,285 · see citing works
Knowledge, Motivation, and Adaptive Behavior: A Framework for Improving Selling Effectiveness
Weitz, B. A., Sujan, H., & Sujan, M. (1986) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.2307/1251294 · Cited by 1,229 · see citing works
On the fragility of skilled performance: What governs choking under pressure?
Beilock, S. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.4.701 · Cited by 1,201 · see citing works
An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise
Côté, J., & Gilbert, W. (2009) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1260/174795409789623892 · Cited by 1,131 · see citing works
Cognitive Conceptions of Learning
Shuell, T. J. (1986) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543056004411 · Cited by 1,120 · see citing works
Consumer Knowledge: Effects on Evaluation Strategies Mediating Consumer Judgments
Sujan, M. (1985) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209033 · Cited by 1,106 · see citing works
Reflections of the Environment in Memory
Anderson, J. R., & Schooler, L. J. (1991) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00174.x · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
Self-citationMathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components.
Geary, D. C. (1993) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.345 · Cited by 1,069 · see citing works
Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious.
Epstein, S. J. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.49.8.709 · Cited by 3,556 · see citing works
A dynamical model of general intelligence: The positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism.
Van Der Maas, H. L. J., Dolan, C. V., Grasman, R. P. P. P., Wicherts, J. M., Huizenga, H. M., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2006) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.113.4.842 · Cited by 1,006 · see citing works
Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem situations.
Anderson, J. R. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.2.192 · Cited by 1,022 · see citing works
Self-citationHabits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal-directed behavior.
Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.1.53 · Cited by 1,248 · see citing works
Ackerman, P. L. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.3.288 · Cited by 899 · see citing works
Sequencing in SLA: Phonological Memory, Chunking, and Points of Order
Ellis, N. C. (1996) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263100014698 · Cited by 837 · see citing works
Intuition: A social cognitive neuroscience approach.
Lieberman, M. D. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.1.109 · Cited by 805 · see citing works
Parallel neural networks for learning sequential procedures
Hikosaka, O., Nakahara, H., Rand, M. K., Sakai, K., Lu, X., Nakamura, K., Miyachi, S., & Doya, K. (1999) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(99)01439-3 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Ford, J. K., Smith, E. M., Weissbein, D. A., Gully, S. M., & Eduardo Salas, A. (1998) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.2.218 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
Workplace participatory practices: Conceptualising workplaces as learning environments
Billett, S. (2004) · Journal of Workplace Learning · doi:10.1108/13665620410550295 · Cited by 765 · see citing works
Measuring Risk Literacy: The Berlin Numeracy Test
Cokely, E. T., Galešić, M., Schulz, E., Ghazal, S., & García‐Retamero, R. (2012) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500001819 · Cited by 752 · see citing works
The power law repealed: The case for an exponential law of practice
Heathcote, A., Brown, S. D., & Mewhort, D. J. K. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03212979 · Cited by 735 · see citing works
The Now-or-Never bottleneck: A fundamental constraint on language
Christiansen, M. H., & Nick Chater, A. (2015) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1500031x · Cited by 750 · see citing works
An Exemplar-Based Random Walk Model of Speeded Classification
Nosofsky, R., & Palmeri, T. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.266 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
The Faces of Engagement: Automatic Recognition of Student Engagementfrom Facial Expressions
Whitehill, J., Serpell, Z. N., Lin, Y.-C., Foster, A., & Movellan, J. R. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2014.2316163 · Cited by 683 · see citing works
Newell, K. M. (1991) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.42.020191.001241 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Gavish, N., Gutiérrez, T., Webel, S., Rodríguez-Arce, J., Peveri, M., Bockholt, U., & Tecchia, F. (2013) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2013.815221 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Masters, R., & Maxwell, J. (2008) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/17509840802287218 · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Ellis, N. C., Simpson‐Vlach, R., & Maynard, C. (2008) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/j.1545-7249.2008.tb00137.x · Cited by 655 · see citing works
Intentional Learning as a Goal of Instruction
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315044408-12 · Cited by 631 · see citing works
An approach to the formal analysis of user complexity
Kieras, D. E., & Polson, P. G. (1999) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.1983.0317 · Cited by 594 · see citing works
Learning in MOOCs: Motivations and self-regulated learning in MOOCs
Littlejohn, A. H., Hood, N., Milligan, C., & Mustain, P. (2015) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.12.003 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Varieties of knowledge elicitation techniques
Cooke, N. J. (1994) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1006/ijhc.1994.1083 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Frequency of word-use predicts rates of lexical evolution throughout Indo-European history
Pagel, M. D., Atkinson, Q. D., & Meade, A. (2007) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06176 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
Yi, M. Y., & Davis, F. D. (2003) · Information systems research · doi:10.1287/isre.14.2.146.16016 · Cited by 642 · see citing works
Anderson, J. R. (1993) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.48.1.35 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrating learning and work: Problems and prospects
Ellström, P. (2001) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.1006 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
Kolers, P. A., & Roediger, H. L., III (1984) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(84)90282-2 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
Automaticity: A new framework for dyslexia research?
Nicolson, R. I., & Fawcett, A. J. (1990) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(90)90013-a · Cited by 558 · see citing works
Changes in collision rates among novice drivers during the first months of driving
Mayhew, D. R., Simpson, H. M., & Pak, A. (2003) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/s0001-4575(02)00047-7 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence.
Geary, D. C. (2005) · doi:10.1037/10871-000 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Matthews, G., Deary, I. J., & Whiteman, M. C. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812736 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2015) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000000939 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Cognitive modeling and intelligent tutoring
Anderson, J. R., Boyle, C. F., Corbett, A. T., & Lewis, M. W. (1990) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0004-3702(90)90093-f · Cited by 537 · see citing works
Self-citationExplanations From Intelligent Systems: Theoretical Foundations and Implications for Practice1
Gregor, S., & Benbasat, I. (1999) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/249487 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Number Sense as Situated Knowing in a Conceptual Domain
Greeno, J. G. (1991) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.22.3.0170 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G. K., Ekelund, B. Z., Ravlin, E. C., Cerdin, J., Poelmans, S., Brislin, R. W., Pekerti, A., Aycan, Z., et al. (2008) · International Journal of Cross Cultural Management · doi:10.1177/1470595808091787 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Virtually Perfect Time Sharing in Dual-Task Performance: Uncorking the Central Cognitive Bottleneck
Schumacher, E. H., Seymour, T. L., Glass, J. M., Fencsik, D. E., Lauber, E. J., Kieras, D. E., & Meyer, D. E. (2001) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00318 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
The effects of nutrition knowledge on food label use. A review of the literature
Miller, L. M. S., & Cassady, D. L. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.029 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Maintaining excellence: Deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists.
Krampe, R. T., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.331 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Payne, J. S., & Whitney, P. J. (2003) · CALICO Journal · doi:10.1558/cj.v20i1.7-32 · Cited by 513 · see citing works
Learning curve models and applications: Literature review and research directions
Anzanello, M. J., & Fogliatto, F. S. (2011) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2011.05.001 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Repetition priming and automaticity: Common underlying mechanisms?
Logan, G. D. (1990) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(90)90002-l · Cited by 504 · see citing works
An approach to the formal analysis of user complexity
Kieras, D. E., & Polson, P. G. (1985) · International Journal of Man-Machine Studies · doi:10.1016/s0020-7373(85)80045-6 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Human memory: An adaptive perspective.
Anderson, J. R., & Milson, R. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.703 · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Self-citationCompetence Differences Between Native and Near-Native Speakers
Coppieters, R. (1987) · Language · doi:10.2307/415005 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology.
Eid, M., & Diener, E. (2006) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11383-000 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
Consciousness, explanatory inversion and cognitive science
Searle, J. R. (1993) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00029587 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
A Prototype View of Expert Teaching
Sternberg, R. J., & Horvath, J. A. (1995) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x024006009 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
From implicit skills to explicit knowledge: a bottom-up model of skill learning
Sun, R., Merrill, E. C., & PETERSON, T. (2001) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1016/s0364-0213(01)00035-0 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Studies of Expertise from Psychological Perspectives
Feltovich, P. J., Prietula, M. J., & Ericsson, K. A. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816796.004 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Transition of Brain Activation from Frontal to Parietal Areas in Visuomotor Sequence Learning
Sakai, K., Hikosaka, O., Miyauchi, S., Takino, R., Sasaki, Y., & Pütz, B. (1998) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.18-05-01827.1998 · Cited by 468 · see citing works
An instance theory of attention and memory.
Logan, G. D. (2002) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.109.2.376 · Cited by 467 · see citing works
Lyons‐Ruth, K. (1999) · Psychoanalytic Inquiry · doi:10.1080/07351699909534267 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
Gray, R. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.10.1.42 · Cited by 464 · see citing works
McMurray, B., Horst, J. S., & Samuelson, L. K. (2012) · Psychology Review · doi:10.1037/a0029872 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Psychological Mechanisms Underlying Second Language Fluency
Schmidt, R. (1992) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263100011189 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Interrelationship of Knowledge, Interest, and Recall: Assessing a Model of Domain Learning
Alexander, P., Jetton, T., & Kulikowich, J. (1995) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.87.4.559 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Designing the Design Process: Exploiting Opportunistic Thoughts
Guindon, R. (1990) · Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/07370024.1990.9667157 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Chein, J. M., & Schneider, W. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.08.013 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Consciousness, explanatory inversion, and cognitive science
Searle, J. R. (1990) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00080304 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Why Do Only Some Events Cause Learning During Human Tutoring?
VanLehn, K. A., Siler, S. A., Murray, C., Yamauchi, T., & Baggett, W. B. (2003) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2103_01 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
- Authors
- Anderson, J. R.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Anderson, John R.
- ORCID
- Anderson, John R.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1982-07
- Volume
- 89
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 369-406
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2044754442
- Cited by
- 3,663
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 114 · 2025: 93 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 93 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 147 · 2018: 115 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 123 · 2015: 103 · 2014: 131 · 2013: 140 · 2012: 146
- FWCI
- 47.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI-based Problem Solving and Planning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- cognitive skill acquisition, procedural stages, production systems, knowledge compilation, composition, proceduralization, discrimination, power law of practice, automation, category formation, language acquisition
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
