The procrastination of everyday life.
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Aversive tasks are characterized by lower autonomy, lower task significance, boredom, resentment, frustration, and difficulty.
“Closer examination of the task aversiveness literature demonstrates that aversive tasks are characterized by lower autonomy, lower task significance, boredom, resentment, frustration, and difficulty (Milgram et al., 1988; Milgram et al., 1995; Blunt and Pychyl, 2000; Steel, 2007).”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Milgram et al., 1988
Individuals are more likely to procrastinate on effort-demanding tasks.
“individuals are more likely to procrastinate on effort-demanding tasks (Milgram et al., 1988)”
From How Study Environments Foster Academic Procrastination: Overview and Recommendations (2020) · cites this paper as Milgram et al., 1988
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“Milgram & Naaman, 1996 ), so that the correlations of procrastination with affect may be somewhat inflated (see van Eerde, in press).”
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“However, there appear to be individual differences in whether procrastinators are concerned with their behaviour ( Milgram & Naaman, 1996 ), and some do not experience regret or other negative psychological consequences.”
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“…and tasks are delayed when they are aversive, difficult, elicit negative affect, or when individuals are uncertain about the consequences of their decisions (e.g., Anderson, 2003; Hogarth, Michaud, & Mery, 1980; Milgram, Sroloff, & Rosenbaum, 1988; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984; Tversky & Shafir, 1992).”
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“…that the lower health-specific self-efficacy of procrastinators noted in the present study reflects a generalization of the global feelings of inability to successfully complete tasks that may characterize procrastination (Ferrari, 1992b; Martin et al., 1996; Milgram et al., 1988; Tuckman, 1991).”
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“Evidence indicates that individuals with discomfort intolerance are more likely to procrastinate on boring, difficult, or demanding tasks (Milgram et al., 1988), all of which are potential demand characteristics of athletic training and competition.”
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Procrastinators lack a broad action perspective
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“decisions or tasks in different contexts: daily tasks, 32 personal projects, 25 and term-paper writing by students.”
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“Milgram, Sroloff, and Rosenbaum (1988) provided yet another interesting account of the strong perfectionism–procrastination link.”
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Correlates of academic procrastination
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Strong, bold, and kind: self-control and cooperation in social dilemmas
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“…(Rosenbaum and Smira 1986; Rosenbaum 1989), coping with mental disability (Rosenbaum and Palmon 1984), coping with seasickness (Rosenbaum and Rolnick 1983), quitting smoking (Katz and Singh 1986), saving over spending (Romal and Kaplan 1995), and curtailing procrastination (Milgram et al. 1988).”
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“Email: leonard.reinecke@uni-mainz.de The phenomenon of procrastination, loosely defined as “putting off for tomorrow what one should do today” (Milgram et al., 1988: 197), is as old as mankind.”
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Situational and Personal Determinants of Academic Procrastination
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Self-citationProcrastination and counterfactual thinking: Avoiding what might have been
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Procrastination during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Scoping Review
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“Procrastination has been studied in different contexts, including academic [9–11], work [12], daily life [13], and health [14].”
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Self-citationProcrastination, busyness and bingeing
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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME STRUCTURE AND PROCRASTINATION
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Purchase deadline as a moderator of the effects of price uncertainty on search duration
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Tangible Temptation in the Social Dilemma: Cash, Cooperation, and Self-ControlPreprint
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“…(Rosenbaum & Palmon, 1984); 8 The Rosenbaum Self-Control Schedule (1980a) is included in Appendix B. 13 managing seasickness (Rosenbaum & Rolnick, 1983); quitting smoking (Katz & Singh, 1986); saving over spending (Romal & Kaplan, 1995); and curtailing procrastination (Milgram et al., 1988).”
Social comparisons by procrastinators: rating peers with similar or dissimilar delay tendencies
Ferrari, J. R., & Patel, T. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.02.006 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Decisional and behavioral procrastination: How they relate to self-discrepancies.
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Social dilemmas: When self-control benefits cooperation
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Psychological analysis of consumer intertemporal decisions
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“Although consumers procrastinate all sorts of tasks, the tendency is especially acute when they perceive tasks as unpleasant (Milgram et al., 1988), such as studying or exercising.”
Milgram, N. A., & Naaman, N. (1996) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00018-9 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
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“This type of behavior, consisting of non-compliance with deadlines for psychological reasons, is called procrastination [60].”
BackgroundTrait procrastination among dental students in India and its influence on academic performance.
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Academic Procrastination Behaviour of Pre-service Teachers’ of Celal Bayar University
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Strong, Bold, and Kind: Self-Control and Cooperation in Social DilemmasPreprint
Kocher, M. G., Myrseth, K. O. R., Martinsson, P., & Wollbrant, C. E.-P. (2012) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1988286 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Individual differences in resting-state functional connectivity predict procrastination
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Nudging the Classroom: Designing a Socio-Technical Artifact to Reduce Academic Procrastination
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“Virtually everyone procrastinates, to a greater or lesser extent, in their everyday life [4].”
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Attributions of Responsibility and Blame for Procrastination Behavior
Rahimi, S., Hall, N. C., & Pychyl, T. A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01179 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Procrastination research further suggests that individuals are more likely to postpone tasks that are unpleasant (Milgram et al., 1988; Blunt and Pychyl, 2000) or when task rewards are more distal (Steel, 2007).”
BackgroundExplanation of academic procrastination from self-esteem, state anxiety, self-efficacy
Aydoğan, D., & Özbay, Y. (2012) · Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction · doi:10.14527/c2s3m1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The ABC of academic procrastination: Functional analysis of a detrimental habit
Svartdal, F., & Løkke, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1019261 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Physical effort is itself inherently aversive (Eisenberger, 1992), and individuals are more likely to procrastinate on effort-demanding tasks (Milgram et al., 1988).”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Frustration Intolerance and Academic Achievement in College
Wilde, J. (2012) · International Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.5430/ijhe.v1n2p1 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Relationship between Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Procrastination
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Empower, not impose!—Preventing academic procrastination
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“Task evasiveness is described as “dysphoric affect” (Milgram et al., 1988, as cited in Steel, 2007, p. 68) or “task appeal” (Harris & Sutton, 1983, as cited in Steel, 2007, p. 68); that is, a person who finds a situation or action unpleasant is more likely to avoid it.”
Examining the Self of Chronic Procrastinators: Actual, Ought, and Undesired Attributes
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Tangible temptation in the social dilemma: Cash, cooperation, and self-control.
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Past Negative Consequences of Unnecessary Delay as a Marker of Procrastination
Svartdal, F., & Nemtcan, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787337 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
An Exploratory Study on Personality Traits and Procrastination Among University Students
Lai, C. S. (2015) · American Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.11648/j.ajap.s.2015040301.14 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“[23] examined procrastination on everyday tasks and found that procrastination was associated with "covert negativism".”
BackgroundInfluence of decision-making styles and affective styles on academic procrastination among students
Vany Mol, K. S., Rajkumar, E., Lakshmı, R., Romate, J., Sunny, S. M., George, A. J., Pawar, S., & Abraham, J. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2203598 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Life routine procrastination is when the person is unable to schedule daily life activities and follow the routine as per schedule (Milgram et al., 1988).”
BackgroundErteleme: Türleri, Bileşenleri, Demografik Etkenler ve Kültürel Farklılıklar
Uzun, B., & Demir, A. (2015) · Ege Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.12984/eed.09571 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Don’t Mind If I Do”: The Role of Behavioral Resistance in Self-Control’s Effects on Behavior
Gillebaart, M., & Kroese, F. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00396 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Task aversiveness can be defined as the extent to which a task or behavior is perceived to be unpleasant or unenjoyable to perform (Milgram et al., 1988; Blunt and Pychyl, 2000), and is an important cause of procrastinating performance of different types of behaviors such as studying (Milgram et al.”
BackgroundDilmaç, B. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v7i19.1332 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Savaş, B. Ç., TURAN, M., & Asan, S. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03510-5 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Milgram et al. [31] noted that there are five types of procrastination: general procrastination, academic procrastination, decision-making procrastination, neurotic procrastination, and compulsive procrastination [32].”
Düşmez, İ., & Barut, Y. (2016) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.15.36.3.1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Prokrastynacja i prokrastynatorzy. Definicja, etiologia, epidemiologia i terapia
Markiewicz, K. (2019) · Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska sectio J – Paedagogia-Psychologia · doi:10.17951/j.2018.31.3.195-213 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Escala de Procrastinação Ativa: evidências de validade fatorial e consistência interna
Gouveia, V. V., Pessoa, V. S., Coutinho, M. D. L., Barros, I. C. D. S., & da Fonseca, A. A. (2014) · Psico-USF · doi:10.1590/1413-82712014019002008 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
BAŞPINAR, N. Ö. (2020) · Journal of Turkish Studies · doi:10.29228/turkishstudies.41436 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Naderi, K., Doost, H. T. N., & Talebi, H. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Research in Paramedical Sciences · doi:10.5812/jcrps.100923 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kamber, E., Fuke, T. S. S., Alunni, M., & Mahy, C. E. V. (2023) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.09.002 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Milgram et al. (1988, 1998) explained the relation between adults ’ emotional responses and procrastination using the Appraisal-Anxiety-Avoidance model.”
BackgroundMethodResultWieland, L. M., Ebner‐Priemer, U., Limberger, M. F., & Nett, U. E. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.695927 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Procrastination in Daily Living
Milgram, N. A. (1988) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1988.63.3.752 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationShao, J., & Ulrike Gretzel, B. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-99407-8_17 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Joubert, C. P. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Sutriyono, S., Riyani, R., & Prasetya, B. E. A. (2012) · Satya Widya · doi:10.24246/j.sw.2012.v28.i2.p127-136 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Ghadampour, E., & Beiranvand, K. (2019) · Advances in Cognitive Science · doi:10.30699/icss.21.3.31 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Task Aversiveness Sebagai Prediktor Prokrastinasi Akademik Pada Mahasiswa
Putri, N. I., & Edwina, T. N. (2020) · Jurnal Studi Guru dan Pembelajaran · doi:10.30605/jsgp.3.1.2020.242 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Beberapa klinisi, peneliti dan ahli teori (misalnya Burka & Yuen, 1983; Milgram et al., 1988; Milgram, Dangour & Raviv, 1992) yang meneliti perilaku menunda telah membahas penolakan sebagai konsep penjelasan dari prokrastinasi.”
BackgroundBehnke, R. R., & Sawyer, C. R. (1999) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824099909388699 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Milgram, N. A., Sroloff, B., & Rosenbaum, M.
- Affiliations
- Tel Aviv University (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Milgram, Norman A.
- ORCID
- Rosenbaum, Michael
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Personality
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1988-06
- Volume
- 22
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 197-212
- ISSN
- 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2030539120
- Cited by
- 201
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 2.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Temporal Perspectives Research
- Keywords
- procrastination, routine tasks, university students, self-regulation, Type A behavior pattern, life satisfaction, cognitive appraisal, stress coping, scheduling, gender differences
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