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Cited by 131Prosthetics and Rehabilitation RoboticsMuscle activation and electromyography studiesRobotic Locomotion and Control

A review of current state-of-the-art control methods for lower-limb powered prostheses

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Gehlhar, Rachel, Tucker, Maegan, Young, Aaron J., Ames, Aaron D.·2023·Annual Reviews in Control
DOI 10.1016/j.arcontrol.2023.03.003PMC PMC10449377
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Abstract

Lower-limb prostheses aim to restore ambulatory function for individuals with lower-limb amputations. While the design of lower-limb prostheses is important, this paper focuses on the complementary challenge - the control of lower-limb prostheses. Specifically, we focus on powered prostheses, a subset of lower-limb prostheses, which utilize actuators to inject mechanical power into the walking gait of a human user. In this paper, we present a review of existing control strategies for lower-limb powered prostheses, including the control objectives, sensing capabilities, and control methodologies. We separate the various control methods into three main tiers of prosthesis control: high-level control for task and gait phase estimation, mid-level control for desired torque computation (both with and without the use of reference trajectories), and low-level control for enforcing the computed torque commands on the prosthesis. In particular, we focus on the high- and mid-level control approaches in this review. Additionally, we outline existing methods for customizing the prosthetic behavior for individual human users. Finally, we conclude with a discussion on future research directions for powered lower-limb prostheses based on the potential of current control methods and open problems in the field.

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  • Cybersecurity issues become a major problem when distribution networks grow more automated and linked due to smart technologies and EVs.

    “Cybersecurity issues become a major problem when distribution networks grow more automated and linked as a result of the combination of smart technologies and EVs.”

    From A Review: The Impact of High Penetration of EVs on Distribution Network and Its Management Strategy (2025) · cites this paper as [40]

    The Introduction’s “Current Limitations of Powered Prostheses” and Discussion’s “Open Problems” address prosthesis control faults, not cybersecurity in electricity distribution networks. Searches for cybersecurity, distribution networks, smart technologies, and EVs found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • These systems provide avenues for malicious actors to meddle in service and alter charging practices, posing a threat to public safety and increasing utility costs.

    “These systems provide avenues for malicious actors to meddle in service, alter charging practices, posing a threat to public safety and eating up utility money.”

    From A Review: The Impact of High Penetration of EVs on Distribution Network and Its Management Strategy (2025) · cites this paper as [40]

    The Introduction (Current Limitations of Powered Prostheses; page not provided) discusses device cost and mechanical or electronic failures, while the Discussion (Open Problems; page not provided) discusses user safety from prosthesis faults. Searches for malicious interference, charging practices, and utility costs found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • EV charging and distribution activities are carried out through digital communication channels, making networks vulnerable to intrusions.

    “EV charging and distribution activities are carried out through digital communication channels, so networks are vulnerable to intrusions.”

    From A Review: The Impact of High Penetration of EVs on Distribution Network and Its Management Strategy (2025) · cites this paper as [40]

    The Sensing for Prosthesis Control > EMG Sensors and Discussion > Open Problems passages concern prosthesis sensors and control faults, not EV infrastructure. Searches for EV charging, digital communication, cybersecurity, and network intrusions found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Gehlhar, R., Tucker, M., Young, A. J., & Ames, A. D.
Affiliations
  • California Institute of Technology (US)
  • Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
Corresponding author
Gehlhar, Rachel
ORCID
Venue
Annual Reviews in Control
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2023
Volume
55
Pages
142-164
ISSN
1367-5788 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.arcontrol.2023.03.003
PMC
PMC10449377
OpenAlex
W4362576326
Cited by
131
References
6
Citations by year
2026: 24 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 11
FWCI
10.35
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Annual Reviews in Control (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (1923239, 1924526)
  • National Institutes of Health (DP2-HD111709)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Prosthetics and Rehabilitation Robotics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Robotic Locomotion and Control
Keywords
prosthetic control, lower limb amputation, gait phase estimation, reference trajectory, high-level control, low-level control, sensory feedback

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