The DOI matches its Crossref record; 215 of the 215 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Open accessAbstract
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an indole alkaloid widely found in plants and animals. It is best known for producing brief and intense psychedelic effects when ingested. Increasing evidence suggests that endogenous DMT plays important roles for a number of processes in the periphery and central nervous system, and may act as a neurotransmitter. This paper reviews the current literature of both the recreational use of DMT and its potential roles as an endogenous neurotransmitter. Pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action in the periphery and central nervous system, clinical uses and adverse effects are also reviewed. DMT appears to have limited neurotoxicity and other adverse effects except for intense cardiovascular effects when administered intravenously in large doses. Because of its role in nervous system signaling, DMT may be a useful experimental tool in exploring how brain works, and may also be a useful clinical tool for treatment of anxiety and psychosis.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“DMT exhibits, besides the 5-HT2AR, also high affinity for the S1R, which is highly expressed in the hippocampus and is a stimulator of synaptic plasticity (99–101).”
From Psychedelics and Neuroplasticity: A Systematic Review Unraveling the Biological Underpinnings of Psychedelics. (2021) · cites this paper as [100]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The latter plant contains DMT (9), a hallucinogenic tryptamine that acts as a 5-HT1A/2A/2C agonist [54,128].”
From Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans. (2021) · cites this paper as [54]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Tryptamine derivatives function as neurotransmitters.[15]”
From Lipid Nanoparticles Enhance mRNA Delivery to the Central Nervous System Upon Intrathecal Injection (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Tryptamine derivatives are neurotransmitter precursors that cross the BBB by active transport via Mg2+ and ATP-dependent uptake38–40.”
From Blood–brain-barrier-crossing lipid nanoparticles for mRNA delivery to the central nervous system (2025) · cites this paper as [38]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For example, dimethyltryptamine and other tryptamine derivatives have been shown to cross the BBB by active transport across the endothelial plasma membrane (21).”
From Neurotransmitter-derived lipidoids (NT-lipidoids) for enhanced brain delivery through intravenous injection (2020) · cites this paper as [21]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“DMT (9) also showed an interaction with moderate affinity at sigma receptors [54].”
From Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans. (2021) · cites this paper as [54]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The MAO-Is prevent the degradation of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) contained in the Psychotria viridis leaves or other additional plants, thereby DMT becomes orally bioavailable (7–9).”
From Potential therapeutic effects of an ayahuasca-inspired N,N-DMT and harmine formulation: a controlled trial in healthy subjects (2024) · cites this paper as [9]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The chemical structure of NT1 is based on the NT dimethyltryptamine, which has been reported to cross the BBB by active transport across the endothelial plasma membrane (21).”
From Neurotransmitter-derived lipidoids (NT-lipidoids) for enhanced brain delivery through intravenous injection (2020) · cites this paper as [21]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Control of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca2+ release by cytosolic Ca2+
Bootman, M. D., Missiaen, L., Parys, J. B., SMEDT, H. D., & Casteels, R. (1995) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/bj3060445 · Cited by 5,131
Hayashi, T., & Su, T.-P. (2007) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2007.08.036 · Cited by 1,826
Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5 · Cited by 1,684 · cited 2×
“Recently, a series of studies examined the long-term personal and spiritual significance of exposure to psilocybin (Griffiths et al., 2006; 2008; 2011), and others have suggested that psilocybin may be useful for anxiety-related disorders (e.g., Grob et al., 2011; Kometer et al., 2012).”
BackgroundPredicting new molecular targets for known drugs
Keiser, M. J., Setola, V., Irwin, J. J., Laggner, C., Abbas, A. I., Hufeisen, S. J., Jensen, N. H., Kuijer, M. B., Matos, R. C., Tran, T. B., et al. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08506 · Cited by 1,667
Nichols, D. E. (2004) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002 · Cited by 1,211
Pilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer
Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstadt, A. L., & Greer, G. R. (2011) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116 · Cited by 1,206
Shigemoto, R., Kinoshita, A., Wada, E., Nomura, S., Ohishi, H., Takada, M., Flor, P. J., Neki, A., Abe, T., Nakanishi, S., et al. (1997) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-19-07503.1997 · Cited by 1,116
Immunomodulatory functions of type I interferons
González-Navajas, J. M., Lee, J., David, M., & Raz, E. (2012) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri3133 · Cited by 1,030
Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects
Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2358-5 · Cited by 932
Jones, M. W., Errington, M. L., French, P. J., Fine, A., Bliss, T., Garel, S., Charnay, P., Bozon, B., Laroche, S., & Davis, S. (2001) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/85138 · Cited by 925
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Beaton, 1977, Stress induced changes in whole brain indolealkylamine levels in the rat: using gas liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, Abstr. Soc. Neurosci., 4, 1322
- Cozzi, 2011, Indolethylamine-N- methyltransferase expression in primate ner- vous tissue, Abstr. Soc. Neurosci., 37
- Lu, 1974, Correlation between brain, N,N- dimethyltryptamine (DMT) levels and bar pressing behaviour in rats: effect of MAO inhibition, Pharmacologist, 16, 237
- Schultes, 1972, Ethnotoxicological significance of additives to New World hallucinogens, Plant Sci. Bull., 18, 34
- Smith, T.L., 1975. Some neurochemical effects of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and their possible relation to acute schizophrenia. Thesis, Reno, Nev. U.S.A. 1975; Dissertation Abst. Intern. B 35, 4374 B-4375 B.
- Strassman, 1994, Dose-response study of N,N- dimethyltryptamine in humans. I. Neuroendocrine, autonomic, and cardiovascular effects, Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 51, 85, 10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950020009001 · DOI
- Szára, 1961, Hallucinogenic effects and metabolism of tryptamine derivatives in man, Fed. Proc., 20, 885
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Palhano-Fontes, F., Barreto, D., Onias, H., Andrade, K. C., Novaes, M. M., Pessoa, J. A., Mota-Rolim, S. A., Osório, F. L., Sanches, R., dos Santos, R. G., et al. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718001356 · Cited by 852
de Vos, C. M. H., Mason, N. L., & Kuypers, K. P. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.724606 · Cited by 269
Ma, F., Yang, L., Sun, Z., Chen, J., Rui, X., Glass, Z., & Xu, Q. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abb4429 · Cited by 218
Almeida, R. N. D., Galvão, A. C. D. M., da Silva, F. S., Silva, E. A. D. S., Palhano-Fontes, F., Maia-de-Oliveira, J. P., de Araújo, L.-S. B., Lobão-Soares, B., & Galvão-Coelho, N. L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01234 · Cited by 177
Barker, S. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2018.00536 · Cited by 177
Blood–brain-barrier-crossing lipid nanoparticles for mRNA delivery to the central nervous system
Wang, C., Xue, Y., Markovic, T., Li, H., Wang, S., Zhong, Y., Du, S., Zhang, Y., Hou, X., Yu, Y., et al. (2025) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/s41563-024-02114-5 · Cited by 171
“Tryptamine derivatives are neurotransmitter precursors that cross the BBB by active transport via Mg 2+ and ATP-dependent uptake 38–40 .”
Cameron, L. P., Benson, C. J., DeFelice, B. C., Fiehn, O., & Olson, D. E. (2019) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00692 · Cited by 168
Adverse effects of ayahuasca: Results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey
Bouso, J. C., Andión, Ó., Sarris, J. J., Scheidegger, M., Tófoli, L. F., Opaleye, E. S., Schubert, V., & Perkins, D. (2022) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0000438 · Cited by 118
Brito-da-Costa, A. M., Dias-da-Silva, D., Gomes, N. G. M., Dinis-Oliveira, R. J., & Madureira-Carvalho, Á. (2020) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph13110334 · Cited by 117
Jiménez-Garrido, D. F., Gómez-Sousa, M., Ona, G., Dos Santos, R. G., Hallak, J. E. C., Alcázar-Córcoles, M. Á., & Bouso, J. C. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61169-x · Cited by 110
Lima da Cruz, R. V., Moulin, T. C., Petiz, L. L., & Leão, R. N. (2018) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2018.00312 · Cited by 84
Psilocybin in neuropsychiatry: a review of its pharmacology, safety, and efficacy
Dodd, S., Norman, T. R., Eyre, H. A., Stahl, S. M., Phillips, A., Carvalho, A. F., & Berk, M. (2023) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852922000888 · Cited by 73
Barker, S. A. (2022) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06065-0 · Cited by 58
Colaço, C. S., Alves, S. S., Nolli, L. M., Pinheiro, W. O., de Oliveira, D. G. R., Santos, B. W. L., Pic-Taylor, A., Mortari, M. R., & Caldas, E. D. (2020) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-020-00547-w · Cited by 58
Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans.
Cumming, P., Scheidegger, M., Dornbierer, D., Palner, M., Quednow, B. B., & Martin-Soelch, C. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26092451 · Cited by 43
“DMT (9) also showed an interaction with moderate affinity at sigma receptors [54].”
BackgroundAicher, H. D., Mueller, M. J., Dornbierer, D. A., Suay, D., Elsner, C., Wicki, I., Meling, D., Caflisch, L., Hempe, A., Steinhart, C., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1302559 · Cited by 33
“The MAO-Is prevent the degradation of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) contained in the Psychotria viridis leaves or other additional plants, thereby DMT becomes orally bioavailable (7–9).”
BackgroundLipid Nanoparticles Enhance mRNA Delivery to the Central Nervous System Upon Intrathecal Injection
Xue, Y., Wang, C., Li, H., Du, S., Zhong, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, S., Guo, K., Hou, X., Kang, D. D., et al. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202417097 · Cited by 34
Epigenetic Mechanisms of Rapid-Acting Antidepressants
Inserra, A., Campanale, A., Rezai, T., Romualdi, P., & Rubino, T. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03055-y · Cited by 27
Serotonergic psychedelics for depression: A comprehensive overview
Wingert, A. M., Agnorelli, C., Peill, J., Reed, S., Nutt, D. J., & Erritzoe, D. (2025) · International Review of Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2025.04.009 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Carbonaro, T. M., & Gatch, M. B.
- Affiliations
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- University of North Texas Health Science Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gatch, Michael B.
- Venue
- Brain Research Bulletin
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-09
- Volume
- 126
- Issue
- Pt 1
- Pages
- 74-88
- ISSN
- 0361-9230 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5048497
- OpenAlex
- W2344956345
- Semantic Scholar
- 4e7595808935387bb23d1835159e3c823766e578
- Cited by
- 268
- References
- 215
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 1.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Brain Research Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Addiction Treatment Discovery Program of the National Institute
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Alkaloids: synthesis and pharmacology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT, indole alkaloids, endogenous neurotransmitters, psychedelic effects, pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action, neurotoxicity, cardiovascular effects, recreational drug use, anxiety treatment, psychosis treatment
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Hallucinogens, Humans, Neuropharmacology, Mood Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
