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Computerised therapies for anxiety and depression in children and young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
One quarter of children and young people (CYP) experience anxiety and/or depression before adulthood, but treatment is sometimes unavailable or inadequate. Self-help interventions may have a role in augmenting treatment and this work aimed to systematically review the evidence for computerised anxiety and depression interventions in CYP aged 5-25 years old. Databases were searched for randomised controlled trials and 27 studies were identified. For young people (12-25 years) with risk of diagnosed anxiety disorders or depression, computerised CBT (cCBT) had positive effects for symptoms of anxiety (SMD -0.77, 95% CI -1.45 to -0.09, k = 6, N = 220) and depression (SMD -0.62, 95% CI -1.13 to -0.11, k = 7, N = 279). In a general population study of young people, there were small positive effects for anxiety (SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.03; N = 1273) and depression (SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.03; N = 1280). There was uncertainty around the effectiveness of cCBT in children (5-11 years). Evidence for other computerised interventions was sparse and inconclusive. Computerised CBT has potential for treating and preventing anxiety and depression in clinical and general populations of young people. Further program development and research is required to extend its use and establish its benefit in children.
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“Furthermore, computerized CBT, such as MoodGym, SPARX, and “Think, Feel, Do” generally have small but positive effects on mental health.96 , 97”
From Rapid Systematic Review: The Impact of Social Isolation and Loneliness on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in the Context of COVID-19 (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Importantly, reviews have tended to conclude that effects are better if there is some therapist input97 , 101 and if parents are involved especially for younger children.96 , 97”
From Rapid Systematic Review: The Impact of Social Isolation and Loneliness on the Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in the Context of COVID-19 (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The efficacy of DHIPSY for some common mental disorders in children and adolescents has been established using meta-analyses [12,16-19].”
From Mechanisms of Change in Digital Health Interventions for Mental Disorders in Youth: Systematic Review (2021) · cites this paper as [17]
In the citing paper
“In the past 5 years, a number of literature reviews have highlighted the increase in research and development activities for eMental healthcare technologies for children and adolescents [18-22].”
From eMental Healthcare Technologies for Anxiety and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence: Systematic Review of Studies Reporting Implementation Outcomes (2018) · cites this paper as [21]
In the citing paper
“Most importantly, DMH tools do not remotely approximate the level of attractiveness and interactivity to which young “digital natives” have grown accustomed [17,32,43].”
From Use of the Principles of Design Thinking to Address Limitations of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Youth: Viewpoint (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“However, analyses comparing DMH interventions for both anxiety and depression with active nontherapeutic controls have generally failed to show superiority of DMH interventions [31,32].”
From Use of the Principles of Design Thinking to Address Limitations of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Youth: Viewpoint (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“In contrast, Pennant and colleagues [32] showed that face-to-face CBT was more effective than DMH interventions.”
From Use of the Principles of Design Thinking to Address Limitations of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Youth: Viewpoint (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“In the understandable and commendable effort to remain “evidence-based,” most DMH interventions for youth are a little-more-than modified and uploaded CBT manuals and workbooks (eg, MoodGym, Cool Kids, Camp Cope-a-lot, and BRAVE; for a review discussing the evidence base of these DMH interventions, see [32,44]).”
From Use of the Principles of Design Thinking to Address Limitations of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Youth: Viewpoint (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, problems such as insufficient search processes of the literature, small sample sizes, differences at baseline in study samples, and publication bias play important roles in the quality of these studies [32,39].”
From Use of the Principles of Design Thinking to Address Limitations of Digital Mental Health Interventions for Youth: Viewpoint (2019) · cites this paper as [32]
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InfluentialPrevention of Internalized Problems of Children and Youth in Academic Setting
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“Since lots of evidence suggests that large proportion of children and young people with anxiety disorders and depression are not included in the treatment, universal prevention programs that promote well-being and preventative interventions are even more essential [27, 28].”
BackgroundLudlow, K., March, S., Russell, J. K., Ryan, B., Brown, R. L., Hides, L., Donovan, C., Spence, S. H., Saxby, J., & Cobham, V. E. (2024) · DIGITAL HEALTH · doi:10.1177/20552076241263693 · Cited by 7
Khan, K., Hall, C. L., Babbage, C., Dodzo, S., Greenhalgh, C., Lucassen, M. F. G., Merry, S., Sayal, K. S., Sprange, K., Stasiak, K., et al. (2024) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-024-01475-7 · Cited by 8
“One effective approach for adolescents with depression is computerised CBT (cCBT), with numerous randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and meta-analyses demonstrating their efficacy [12, 13].”
BackgroundLiverpool, S., Webber, H., Matthews, R., Wolpert, M., & Edbrooke-Childs, J. H. (2019) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/14571 · Cited by 7
“The prevalence and burden of CAMH on the National Health Service (NHS) is substantial, and supporting large numbers of families at face-to-face sessions can be a challenge [45]; therefore, the use of digital technology can increase access to interventions [46,47].”
BackgroundOutcome Findings and Issues in Psychotherapy With Children and Adolescents: Internalizing Disorders
Viana, A. G., Trent, E. S., Conroy, H. E., & Raines, E. M. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00046-7 · Cited by 7
Wall, H., Hansson, H., Zetterlind, U., Kvillemo, P., & Elgán, T. H. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/52118 · Cited by 7
“Although the number of web-based interventions targeting children or adolescents is increasing [25,31-33], the number of digital interventions aimed at children of substance-abusing parents is still scarce [22,34-38].”
Argyriadis, A., Efthymiou, E., Katsarou, D. V., Sofologi, M., & Argyriadi, A. (2024) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-4022-6.ch004 · Cited by 6
Jayasinghe, H., Short, C. E., Braunack‐Mayer, A., Merkin, A., & Hume, C. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/17915 · Cited by 5
“In addition, existing reviews have routinely included studies with children whose brain development differs from that of adults [31-33]; thus, a need to map the existing literature examining automatic processing”
BackgroundResultFucà, E., Costanzo, F., Bonutto, D., Moretti, A., Fini, A., Ferraiuolo, A., Vicari, S., & Tozzi, A. E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052758 · Cited by 6
“treatment [14,15], the monitoring of, and supporting adherence to, pharmacological and behavioral treatments [16,17].”
BackgroundSimple or complex? A case study of physical and mental health co-morbidity
Bennett, S. D., Heyman, I., Varadkar, S., Coughtrey, A. E., & Shafran, R. (2017) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x1700006x · Cited by 6
“…coupled with low detection rates, has led to a significant proportion of people with chronic illness not having their mental health needs met (Prince et al. 2007), perhaps in part because they are considered ‘difficult to ascertain, diagnose, or treat’ (Complex Needs and Dual Diagnosis…”
BackgroundHiginbotham, M. K., Emmert‐Aronson, B. O., & Bunge, E. L. (2020) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-020-00139-6 · Cited by 6
“Furthermore, Ye et al. (2014), Ebert et al. (2015), and Pennant et al. (2015) compared related modalities (e.g. BITs vs. BITs) but did not preform a cross-comparison to determine the most efficacious treatment intervention for youth with depression.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnttila, M., Lantta, T., Ylitalo, M., Kurki, M., Kuuskorpi, M., & Valimaki, M. A. (2021) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s311788 · Cited by 11
O’Dea, B., Li, S., Subotic-Kerry, M., Achilles, M. R., Mackinnon, A. J., Batterham, P. J., Christensen, H. M., Roberts, A., Nagendraprasad, K., Dudley, Z., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.11.17.24317363 · Cited by 6
March, S., Spence, S. H., Myers, L. S., Ford, M., Smith, G., & Donovan, C. L. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/57405 · Cited by 5
Internet‐based interventions for parents with children 0–5 years: A scoping review
Størksen, H. T., Haga, S. M., Hammerstrøm, K. T., Jacobsen, H., & Drozd, F. (2022) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.16569 · Cited by 5
Wang, H., Yao, J., Jia, S., Chen, W., Guan, Y., Liu, J., Liao, M., Hu, E., & Zhang, Q. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-026-01042-3 · Cited by 7
“Pennant et al. suggested that such programmatic exposure exercises facilitate the process of habituation, thereby reducing excessive physiological and psychological arousal [59].”
Kohl, S. H., Henn, A. T., Fendel, J. C., Luttermann, A., van Noort, B. M., & Konrad, K. (2024) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000989 · Cited by 5
Lee, C., Bazan, M., Wong, J., Yoshida, T., Jantarabenjakul, W., Lin, S., & Papatheodorou, S. (2024) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x241273032 · Cited by 4
“14 Many studies in our analyses excluded those with severe symptoms or histories of suicide under safety concerns, 20,24,28 – 30, 39 Garrido et al. reported that the use of digital technologies — including web and mobile app – based psychological interventions was associated with a small but signi…”
InfluentialImplementing Universal and Targeted Mental Health Promotion Interventions in Schools
Clarke, A. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-23455-3_11 · Cited by 4
McCashin, D., Coyle, D., & O’Reilly, G. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2020.100348 · Cited by 4
“Technology-assisted CBT has been recognized as both an evidence-based and cost- efficient approach to address the unmet needs across different settings for children (Pennant et al., 2015; Stasiak et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLi, S., Achilles, M. R., Subotic-Kerry, M., Werner‐Seidler, A., Newby, J. M., Batterham, P. J., Christensen, H. M., Mackinnon, A. J., & O’Dea, B. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04383-3 · Cited by 7
Verran, A., Uddin, A., Court, R. A., Taggart, F. M., Sutcliffe, P. A., Sturt, J. A., Griffiths, F. E., & Atherton, H. (2018) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/2055207618762209 · Cited by 16
“Those that have are generally positive in their findings but indicate that further research is needed.(27,28) In contrast, this review has looked exclusively at twoway communication and has therefore excluded interventions such as CCBT.”
BackgroundSogomonjan, M., Kerikmäe, T., & Ööpik, P. (2018) · TalTech Journal of European Studies · doi:10.1515/bjes-2018-0019 · Cited by 4
“…therapies or any downloadable software, online multimedia programme or smartphone application designed to teach users the basic concepts of cognitive behavioural therapy and the skills for managing their mental health symptoms (Jonassaint et al., 2017; Pennant et al., 2015; Marks et al., 2007).”
BackgroundChild Psychiatry Without Psychiatrists: A New Model for Old Problems
Fung, D. S. S., & Lim-Ashworth, N. (2017) · Annals of the Academy of Medicine Singapore · doi:10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.v46n2p42 · Cited by 4
Effectiveness and Safety of Antidepressants for Children and Adolescents
Merry, S., Hetrick, S. E., & Stasiak, K. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2410 · Cited by 4
Self-Help Treatment of Childhood Anxiety Disorders
McLellan, L. F., Fitzpatrick, S., Schniering, C. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235655.004 · Cited by 4
Shirotsuki, K., Uehara, S., Adachi, S., & Nakao, M. (2019) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych1010025 · Cited by 4
“A meta-analysis study reported that computerized CBT has potential for treating and preventing anxiety and depression in clinical and general populations of young people [21].”
BackgroundSørensen, N. M., Skaarnes, H., Mathiasen, K., Thastum, M., & Lomholt, J. J. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/66966 · Cited by 3
Prasartpornsirichoke, J., Pityaratstian, N., Poolvoralaks, C., Sermruttanawisith, N., Polpakdee, K., Pholphet, K., & Buathong, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1502406 · Cited by 9
Andersson, R., Vigerland, S., Lenhard, F., Åhlén, J., Bottai, M., Mataix‐Cols, D., & Serlachius, E. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2023-083507 · Cited by 3
“Most meta-analyses show that guided interventions are generally associated with greater improvement, 15–17 although Pennant et al 18 did not find that therapist input had any significant impact on effectiveness of treating depression in young people.”
New Technologies to Deliver CBT
Spence, S. H., March, S., & Donovan, C. L. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235655.005 · Cited by 4
Towards best practice in school management of students with depressive disorders
Burns, J. R. (2021) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1017/jgc.2021.4 · Cited by 4
“Finally, schools may be able to offer computer-based ‘treatment’ programs for students already identified as depressed (Pennant et al., 2015; Stasiak et al., 2016).”
Backgroundvon Hagen, A., Müller, B., Sedlak, A., Bachmann, G., Herbert, J., & Büttner, G. (2021) · Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation · doi:10.1080/10474412.2021.1963267 · Cited by 3
“, 2017; Pesämaa et al., 2004). For instance, Hollis et al. (2017) alert that heterogeneity of target interventions, as well as poor methodological quality make it difficult to draw conclusions on the efficacy of remote services in the provision of mental health services for children and adolescents.”
BackgroundInfluentialPanto, F., Saito, T., Morita, N., & Ogai, Y. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.119764.1 · Cited by 3
Taylor, L. M. W., Giles, S., Howitt, S., Ryan, Z. J., Brooks, E., Radley, L., Thomson, A. C., Whitaker, E., Knight, F., Hill, C., et al. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06833-5 · Cited by 3
Self-citationBjornstad, G. J., Sonthalia, S., Rouse, B., Freeman, L., Hessami, N., Dunne, J. H., & Axford, N. (2024) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/cl2.1376 · Cited by 3
Psychological rehabilitation: cognitive behavioral therapy
Солохина, Т. А., & Михайловна, Л. Е. (2025) · Реабилитология. · doi:10.17749/2949-5873/rehabil.2024.27 · Cited by 3
Nardi, P. C., Ferreira, I. M. F., & Neufeld, C. B. (2017) · Contextos Clínicos · doi:10.4013/ctc.2017.101.06 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Pennant, M. E., Loucas, C. E., Whittington, C., Creswell, C., Fonagy, P., Fuggle, P., Kelvin, R., Naqvi, S., Stockton, S., & Kendall, T.
- Affiliations
- Royal College of Psychiatrists (GB)
- University College London (GB)
- University of Reading (GB)
- Anna Freud Centre (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Pennant, Mary E.
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-04
- Volume
- 67
- Pages
- 1-18
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1985615249
- Cited by
- 269
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 7
- FWCI
- 3.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Department of Health and Social Care
- National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- computerized cognitive behavioral therapy, childhood anxiety, adolescent depression, children and young people, self-help intervention, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, prevention of mental disorders
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Child, Child, Preschool, Computers, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Treatment Outcome, Internet, Young Adult, Mobile Applications
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