Transformational change and leader character
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This conceptual article integrates John Kotter's eight-step model of leading change with the authors' framework of leader character, arguing that 11 character dimensions determine whether transformational change succeeds or fails. It illustrates the argument with executive case examples and suggests how organizations can develop character in younger leaders.
Key findings
The authors define leader character as "an amalgam of virtues, values, and personality traits" and report that their research identified 11 dimensions of leader character and 60-plus associated character elements, based on research with over 2,500 leaders from North America, Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Different character dimensions are argued to matter most at different stages of Kotter's eight-step change model (e.g., drive and integrity for establishing urgency; collaboration, humility, and temperance for the guiding coalition; transcendence and humility for vision; integrity, accountability, and courage for communicating the vision). Judgment is positioned at the center of the framework, channeling and melding the other dimensions into contextually informed behavior; the authors state that leaders cannot pick and choose among dimensions because each is essential to leading change effectively. Illustrative cases include Arthur Martinez at Sears, Steinthor Palsson at Landsbankinn (28 published promises), a Canadian Medical Association financial services unit where engagement scores surpassed pre-fire levels and roughly 40% of employees elected a flex arrangement, and Michael McCain's Maple Leaf Foods transformation, which the authors say required all 11 dimensions and took 5–7 years.
Methods
Conceptual/integrative article rather than an empirical study: the authors combine Kotter's (1996) eight-step change model with their leader character framework (Crossan, Seijts, & Gandz, 2016; Crossan et al., 2017). The character framework draws on prior qualitative and quantitative research, including a qualitative study of why some financial-sector organizations failed or nearly failed in the 2008–2009 crisis (Gandz, Crossan, Seijts, & Stephenson, 2010) and research with over 2,500 leaders across four regions. Evidence presented is illustrative case narrative and the authors' consulting experience, not new data collection or statistical analysis.
Limitations
The paper states no formal limitations section. Evident from the text: the mapping of character dimensions to Kotter's stages is explicitly based on the authors' own experience and selected published reports ("we have picked out those dimensions that—in our own experience and published reports and studies of change—appear to have been most important"), so the stage-by-stage weighting is interpretive rather than empirically tested. The case examples are drawn from prominent executives and are used illustratively, with no systematic sampling or comparison group, and the authors note that productivity in the CMA case "was very difficult to measure" and that the CEO only "believes it had gone up."
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 12 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingcitation
Under Benmosche, AIG's payroll shrank from 97,000 to 57,000 employees.
“The payroll shrank from 97,000 to 57,000 employees.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Norton, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingnone given
The elimination of physical zones based on departments or functions at MDPSI had produced cross-functional collaboration that was spawning client-focused innovation and creativity.
“Most importantly, the elimination of physical zones based on departments or functions had produced the kind of cross-functional collaboration that was spawning client-focused innovation and creativity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Two years after the MDPSI fire, employee engagement scores had surpassed the very high levels they were at prior to the event.
“Two years after the fi re, employee engagement scores had surpassed the very high levels they were at prior to the event”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Approximately 40% of MDPSI employees had elected a flex arrangement two years after the fire.
“approximately 40% of the employees had elected a fl ex arrangement”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
Palsson and his colleagues gained credit from the public as a result of the broad consultation and public meetings.
“The media covered the meetings; the end result of the broad consultation was that Palsson and his colleagues gained credit from the public (Watson, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Watson, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Character-associated behaviors enacted by senior leaders tend to be perceived by others as the behaviors that are valued in the organization.
“Any characterassociated behaviors enacted by the senior leaders tend to be perceived by others as the behaviors that are valued in the organization.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Seijts, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Visions proclaimed from on high are less effective than those developed with the engagement of those affected by them.
“Our own experience suggests that visions proclaimed from on high are less effective than those that are developed with the engagement of those who will be affected by them, thus placing great value on leaders who are willing to collaborate in the process of creating and promulgating compelling visions (Gandz, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Gandz, 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisenone given
There is a gathering body of evidence suggesting that leader character can be assessed and evaluated in current and potential leaders.
“we think there is a gathering body of evidence to suggest that leader character is something that can be assessed and evaluated in current and potential leaders and hence should be taken into account in decisions about how organizations develop and deploy leadership talent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The decision to empower MDPSI employees to make the fixed-or-flex decision was made following numerous employee interviews, focus groups, and surveys engaging employees at all levels.
“The decision to empower employees to make the fi xed or fl ex decision was made following numerous employee interviews, focus groups, and surveys in which employees at all levels - -from fi rst-line workers to senior executives - -were engaged and requested to give their views about the fi xedversus- fl ex system as well as indicate their personal preferences.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Judgment plays a critical role in leader character.
“We positioned judgment in the center of our framework because it plays a critical role in leader character (Crossan et al., 2017; Crossan et al., 2016).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
If leaders appear deceptive, unfair, inequitable, arrogant, disrespectful, and lacking empathy or compassion to those for whom change is painful, they will raise hostility toward future change even if the current change is successful.
“If, on the other hand, leaders appear to be deceptive, unfair, inequitable, arrogant, disrespectful, and lacking in empathy or compassion to those for whom change is painful, they will raise the bar of hostility toward future change even if the current one is successful.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The vast majority of deaths of U.S. military personnel in Iraq occurred after Bush's 'Mission Accomplished' speech during the Iraqi insurgency.
“the vast majority of deaths of U.S. military personnel occurred after the speech during the Iraqi insurgency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mooney, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Benmosche exercised effective judgment near the very heart of the catastrophe that threatened the global financial system.
“In sum, Benmosche exercised effective judgment near the very heart of the catastrophe that threatened the global fi nancial system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Successful transformational change requires real-time judgement.
“Successful transformational change requires real-time judgement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kotter (1996)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductnone given
The leader character framework is based on research with over 2,500 leaders from North America, Europe, Asia, and Latin America.
“The leader character framework is based on research with over 2,500 leaders from North America, Europe, Asia, and Latin America.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- May combine two claims. 7
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35
May combine two claims.
Findingown data§ KEYWORDS · p. 1Our research identified 11 dimensions of leader character and 60-plus character elements illustrative of those dimensions.
“Our research identi fi ed 11 dimensions of leader character and 60-plus character elements that are illustrative of those dimensions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
FindingcitationIn May 2016, McCain declared that Maple Leaf Foods' transformation was delivering the financial goals set in 2010.
“In May 2016, McCain (2016) was fi nally able to declare that ' our transformation, one of the largest in the North American food industry, is delivering the fi nancialgoalsthat wesetbackin 2010. '”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McCain, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationBy 2012, AIG had repaid the entire $182 billion in bailout money and had given U.S. taxpayers a $22 billion profit on their loan to AIG.
“By 2012, AIG had not only repaid the entire $182 billion in bailout money, but had also given the U.S. taxpayers a $22 billion pro fi t on their loan to AIG.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Norton, 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenFailure of a change initiative can often be attributed to the lack of early wins despite significant efforts of those tasked with implementing the change.
“Our experience has shown that failure of a change initiative can often be attributed to the lack of early wins despite signi fi cant efforts of those tasked with implementing the change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees want to see unambiguous improvements as a result of change if they are to remain engaged.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenIn the authors' experience, it is relatively rare for senior leaders to discuss character dimensions and supporting elements they expect to see in a successful candidate and to focus on character deficiencies when reviewing on-the-job performance.
“In our experience, it is relatively rare for senior leaders to discuss character dimensions and supporting elements they expect to see in the successful candidate as well as to focus on character de fi ciencies when reviewing on-the-job performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe research the authors conducted offers a specific vocabulary that allows leaders to have developmental leadership conversations in the workplace and to infuse leader character into HR systems and processes to enable excellence in the workplace.
“The research we conducted offers a speci fi c vocabulary that allows leaders to have developmental leadership conversations in the workplace and to infuse leader character into HR systems and processes to enable excellence in the workplace.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenLeaders have to keep employees informed in order to get their views and input in developing specific ideas as to what needs to be done further.
“For example, leaders have to keep employees informed in order to get their views and input in developing speci fi c ideas as to what needs to be done further.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIt takes courage to lead change.
“Hence, it takes courage to lead change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Not all resistance can be turned into support and not everyone will be happy with the change.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Premisenone given§ KEYWORDS · p. 1Leader character is foundational to good leadership.
“Leader character is foundational to good leadership.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenCollaboration is an essential ingredient to make the guiding coalition work.
“Collaboration is an essential ingredient to make the guiding coalition work.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIt typically takes years before new practices are firmly grounded in the organizational culture that is envisioned.
“it typically takes years before the new practices are fi rmly grounded in the organizational culture that is envisioned.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningIn an era in which change is the new normal, the character of leaders will create a supportive change culture that contributes to organizational success and sustainability.
“In an era in which change is the new normal, it is the character of leaders that will create a supportive change culture that will contribute to organizational success and sustainability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenMore than one character dimension may be involved in each phase of the change process.
“More than one of these character dimensions may be involved in each phase of the change process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The 11 dimensions of leader character influence individual and organizational outcomes independently and interactively.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenInhumane change such as 'slash-and-burn' tactics may be powered through and may even be effective in the short-term.
“Inhumane change such as ' slash-and-burn ' tactics may be powered through and may even be effective in the short-term.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPalsson showed integrity, accountability, and courage.
“Palsson showed integrity, accountability, and courage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningLeaders who do not have the humility to recognize their own errors and omissions will not make the necessary course corrections to ensure success.
“Leaders who do not have the humility to recognize their own errors and omissions will not make the necessary course corrections to ensure success.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningLeaders accelerate the change plan to further increase momentum because doing so counters continuing resistance to change by employees.
“Leaders accelerate the change plan to further increase momentum because doing so counters any continuing resistance to change by employees.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenInhumane change leaves a toxic and corrosive culture that makes it more difficult to generate and implement subsequent change efforts.
“However, it leaves a toxic and corrosive culture that makes it more dif fi cult to generate and implement subsequent change efforts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenTo lead the change successfully at Maple Leaf Foods required McCain to draw upon every one of the 11 dimensions of character.
“To lead the change successfully required McCain to draw upon every one of the 11 dimensions of character:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenJudgment is required in every stage of the change leadership process, from envisioning the change to celebrating its achievement.
“Judgment is required in every stage of the change leadership process, from envisioning the change to celebrating its achievement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe development of character dimensions such as drive, collaboration, humanity, temperance, courage, and accountability may be crucial to the effectiveness of the leader and the success of the change initiative.
“The development of character dimensions such as drive, collaboration, humanity, temperance, courage, and accountability may be crucial to the effectiveness of the leader and the success of the change initiative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationown dataThe dimensions that appear most important at each of the eight stages of Kotter's change model are identified based on our own experience and published reports and studies of change.
“In the following examples, we have picked out those dimensions that - -in our own experience and published reports and studies of change - -appear to have been most important at each of the eight stages of Kotter ' s change model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningChange sometimes requires more patience, calmness, and preparedness to adjust to myriad actions and schedules, all of which require a degree of temperance.
“Change sometimes requires more patience, calmness, and preparedness to adjust to myriad actions and schedules . . . all of which require a degree of temperance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningReal collaboration is a prerequisite for acceptance.
“Real collaboration is a prerequisite for acceptance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningCreating a sense of urgency requires the leader to demonstrate integrity.
“Creating a sense of urgency also requires the leader to be truthful and straightforward and to be transparent even in the most challenging situations - -to demonstrate integrity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningLeaders need to communicate progress and positive steps taken, both to employees and external stakeholders.
“Leaders also need to communicate progress and the positive steps taken, both to employees and external stakeholders.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenDrive is essential to tackle challenges with a sense of urgency.
“Drive is essential to tackle challenges with a sense of urgency.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenLeaders need to demonstrate temperance when the guiding coalition is dealing with challenges.
“Leaders also need to demonstrate temperance when the guiding coalition is dealing with the myriad of challenges at hand.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningSenior leaders in an organization play a critical role in promoting the development of leader character in next generation leaders.
“the senior leaders in an organization play a critical role in promoting the development of leader character in next generation leaders.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenWhere leaders are perceived as having integrity, humility, humanity, temperance, justice, and collaboration, those who might resist change are likely to be encouraged to support the current change and to feel good about the change process in ways that open them to further change initiatives.
“Where leaders are perceived as having integrity, humility, humanity, temperance, justice, and collaboration, the chances are that those who might resist change will be encouraged to support the current change and will feel good about the change process in ways that will open themselves up to further change initiatives.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationBandura's social cognitive theory explains that behavior is learned from the environment through observation and imitation.
“Bandura ' s (1997) social cognitive theory explains that behavior is learned from the environment through the processes of observation and imitation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bandura, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningEach of the character dimensions is essential to lead change effectively, so leaders cannot simply pick and choose which dimensions to embrace and which to ignore.
“Leaders cannot simply pick and choose which dimensions they want to embrace and which ones they want to ignore because each of the dimensions is essential to lead change effectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenWithout the breadth and depth of character displayed by McCain and his leadership team, the successful transformation would never have happened.
“Arguably,without the breadth and depth of character displayed by McCain and his leadership team, the successful transformation would never have happened.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenOne of the pitfalls of leading change is to declare victory too soon.
“However, one of the pitfalls of leading change is to declare victory too soon.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees want to see unambiguous improvements as a result of change if they are to remain engaged.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningAny leader who has difficulty being truthful and straightforward with others in trying situations is at a disadvantage.
“Any leader who has dif fi culty in being truthful and straightforward with others in trying situations is at a disadvantage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.
- Rests on an assumption: When people feel misled, manipulated, or sandbagged into accepting changes, they will be lukewarm in their support or could turn from supporters to resistors of the current and future change efforts.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationWithout drive, leaders would not even tackle change.
“Without drive, leaders would not even tackle change since, as Machiavelli said in The Prince more than 500 years ago: ' There is nothing more dif fi cult to take in hand, more perilous to conduct, or more uncertain in its success, than to take the lead in the introduction of a new order of things. '”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Machiavelli, The Prince
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIt takes transcendence, drive, humility, and courage to formulate, communicate, and execute a bold vision for change.
“It takes transcendence, drive, humility, and courage to formulate, communicate, and execute a bold vision for change.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.
“Employees and the public expect their leaders to be open and honest in relationships and communications.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The 11 dimensions of leader character influence individual and organizational outcomes independently and interactively.
“The framework postulates that there are 11 dimensions of leader character that in fl uence individual and organizational outcomes independently and interactively.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When people feel misled, manipulated, or sandbagged into accepting changes, they will be lukewarm in their support or could turn from supporters to resistors of the current and future change efforts.
“When people feel misled, manipulated, or sandbagged into accepting changes, they will be lukewarm in their support or could turn from supporters to resistors of the current and future change efforts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When change is viewed as unjust by those affected by it, their support may turn into overt or covert resistance.
“When change is viewed as unjust by those affected by it, their support may turn into overt or covert resistance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Not all resistance can be turned into support and not everyone will be happy with the change.
“Not all resistance can be turned into support and not everyone will be happy with the change.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Employees want to see unambiguous improvements as a result of change if they are to remain engaged.
“Employees would like to see unambiguous improvements as a result of the change if they are to remain engaged.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Change initiatives often fail because leaders underestimate the challenges of changing an organization's culture to support the change.
“Change initiatives often fail because leaders underestimate the challenges of changing an organization ' s culture to support the change.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Temperance is a character dimension that is challenging for many leaders.
“A character dimension that is challenging for many leaders is temperance.”
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Sustainable Digital Change: The Case of a Municipality
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A bibliometric analysis of business character (1991-2025): implications for leaders
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- Authors
- Seijts, G. H., & Gandz, J.
- Affiliations
- Western University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Seijts, Gerard H.
- ORCID
- Seijts, Gerard H.
- Venue
- Business Horizons
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-03
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 239-249
- ISSN
- 0007-6813 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2774037057
- Semantic Scholar
- 703f98e97e6beedb3bdfbcf0b77d0610b44451fd
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 5.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Business Horizons (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Organizational Change and Leadership
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Leadership and Management in Organizations
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Ego Development and Educational Practices
- Keywords
- leader character, transformative change, organizational change, Kotter's eight-step model, virtue, values, personality traits, leadership development, young leaders, change outcomes
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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