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Regulation of Translation Initiation in Eukaryotes: Mechanisms and Biological Targets
Open accessAbstract
Translational control in eukaryotic cells is critical for gene regulation during nutrient deprivation and stress, development and differentiation, nervous system function, aging, and disease. We describe recent advances in our understanding of the molecular structures and biochemical functions of the translation initiation machinery and summarize key strategies that mediate general or gene-specific translational control, particularly in mammalian systems.
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“Both transcription and translation are strongly affected by exact DNA and mRNA sequences, respectively, as well as their cellular environments (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009; Alpert et al., 2017).”
From Evaluating Efficiencies of Dual AAV Approaches for Retinal Targeting (2017) · cites this paper as Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Translation of a uORFs can modulate the expression of the downstream protein-coding gene in response to global (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009) or gene-specific regulatory signals (Medenbach et al., 2011).”
From Ribosome Profiling of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells Reveals the Complexity and Dynamics of Mammalian Proteomes (2011) · cites this paper as Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009
In the citing paper
“which, like NIBAN1, phosphorylates EIF4EBP1 to allow assembly of the initiation complex23”
From NEAT-seq: simultaneous profiling of intra-nuclear proteins, chromatin accessibility and gene expression in single cells (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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Cites
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“Even for those studies concluding that inhibition occurs at the level of translation initiation, the data are conflicting as in some studies translation inhibition was cap dependent and mediated by eIF4F, whereas in others it was cap independent and mediated via eIF6 (Filipowicz et al., 2008).”
Self-citationThe impact of microRNAs on protein output
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Widespread changes in protein synthesis induced by microRNAs
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“It is noteworthy that recent large-scale studies in cells demonstrated that the magnitude of translation inhibition of most mRNAs is moderate (~2-fold) (Baek et al., 2008; Selbach et al., 2008), and that similar results were obtained in cell-free translation extracts.”
Switching from Repression to Activation: MicroRNAs Can Up-Regulate Translation
Vasudevan, S., Tong, Y., & STEITZ, J. A. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1149460 · Cited by 2,911 · cited 1×
“Surprisingly, it was reported recently that miRNAs can also stimulate rather than inhibit translation when cells enter quiescence (Vasudevan et al., 2007).”
Reinitiation involving upstream ORFs regulates ATF4 mRNA translation in mammalian cells
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Absence of S6K1 protects against age- and diet-induced obesity while enhancing insulin sensitivity
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“Certain types of stress granules form even in the absence of eIF2α phosphorylation: hyperphosphorylation of 4E-binding proteins by mTOR disrupts the eIF4E-4G interaction (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009) and leads to the stalling of the preinitiation complex, which initiates stress granule formation (Panas et al.”
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“However it is primarily controlled by the machinery of translation initiation [1]–[3].”
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“During translation, ribosomes perform protein synthesis to ensure that a genetic code is successfully translated into a functional protein (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009).”
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Ichinose, T., Kondo, S., Kanno, M., Shichino, Y., Mito, M., Iwasaki, S., & Tanimoto, H. (2023) · doi:10.1101/2023.06.15.545207
“Furthermore, previous studies have identified eIF1, eIF2 a kinases, and DENR/MCT1, as facilitators of translation of main ORF whose 5′ leaders harbor uORFs (Ivanov et al., 2010; Schleich et al., 2014; Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009; Zhou et al., 2020).”
BackgroundYıldırım, M. E., Ayhan, B., & Çelik, H. (2026) · Molecular Biology Reports · doi:10.1007/s11033-026-13074-1
“Several regulatory systems may contribute to this response. mTORC1–4E-BP1 signalling controls cap-dependent translation initiation [16, 17], whereas N6-meth - yladenosine (m6A) and its reader proteins can support transcript-selective translation during cellular stress [18–20].”
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“By folding into dynamic secondary and tertiary structures and associating with RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), RNAs dictate complex interactions that control such fundamental processes as translation, splicing, and localization [ 3–7 ].”
Keller, D. T., Kankel, S., Liehr, T., Hardt, K. S., Buhl, E. M., Weiskirchen, R., & Schröder-Lange, S. K. (2026) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2026.1909534
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“Translation is a dynamic, multi-step process comprising initiation, elongation and termination of polypeptide chains [3], and is carried out by ribosomes, tRNAs and numerous regulatory factors, such as eukaryotic translation initiation factor (eIF) proteins.”
Bermudez, S., Choi, J.-H., Mahmood, N., Vogel, J. W., Almousa, H. A., Huang, Z., Kim, S.-H., Zhu, V. Y., Zhou, L., Casas-Antillon, D., et al. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2610766123
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Self-citationCap-Independent Translation Regulation of VEGF Using CRISPR-dCas13d
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“Canonical translation initiation is a highly regulated process [ 9–11 ].”
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“This is also consistent with downregulation TOR signaling (e.g. upon starvation) leading to reduced ribosome biogenesis, translation initiation and activation of energy conservation pathways (79-82).”
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“Given that UTRs play critical roles in translation initiation, mRNA stability, environmental signal responses, and tissue‐specific expression, their prevalence suggests potential regulatory complexity in CsROP gene function (Huang et al. 2008; Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009).”
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“Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 4E Nuclear Import Factor 1 (EIF4ENIF1) is an RNA-binding protein (RBP) that contains a binding site for the mRNA 5 ′ cap-binding protein eIF4E (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009).”
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“Canonical translation initiation is a highly regulated process (9–11).”
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“In eukaryotes, two macromolecular complexes – eIF4F complex (eIF4E, eIF4G, eIF4A) and the 43S initiation complex (40S ribosome, eIF2, eIF3, eIF1A, and Met-tRNA) – control cap-dependent translation initiation (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009; Jackson et al. 2010).”
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“The reader is encouraged to view a number of reviews on this topic for a more complete understanding of this process and, importantly, its regulation [1–5].”
InfluentialMulti-level Integrated Engineering Enhances Neutral β-Glucanase Production in Komagataella phaffii.
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“This discrepancy between rRNA content and protein synthesis may be attributed to post-transcriptional or translational regulation (Sonenberg & Hinnebusch, 2009), explaining why protein synthesis rates can increase without a corresponding rise in rRNA content.”
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“EIF4E initiates protein synthesis by binding the mRNA 5 ′ -cap to form the eIF4F complex (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009; Chen et al., 2023).”
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Dual promoter architecture of NFE2L2 underlies isoform-specific translational control of NRF2
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Enhancement of Therapeutic mRNA Translation in Cellular Stress Conditions
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“Eukaryotic protein synthesis proceeds through three main phases: initiation, elongation, and termination coupled with ribosome recycling [26,27].”
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“…where it is installed by the RNMT-RAM complex and recognized by cap-binding proteins such as eIF4E (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E) to facilitate mRNA stability and translation initiation (Ramanathan et al., 2016; Sonenberg and Hinnebusch, 2009; Gonatopoulos-Pournatzis et al., 2011).”
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Conformational Ensembles of the Disordered 4E-BP2:eIF4E Complex Restrained by smFRET Experiments
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“Translation of mRNA to protein is regulated by the tight interaction of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) with disordered eIF4E binding proteins (4E-BPs) in a phosphorylation-dependent manner (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009).”
Zocateli, P. I., Olimpio, G. V., de Almeida, F. A., da Rocha, L. O., Martins, D. V. D. S., Sangi, S., Olivares, F., de Matos, E. M., Siqueira, J., Viccini, L., et al. (2026) · Plant, Cell and Environment · doi:10.1111/pce.70552
“These findings align with the notion that DNA demethylation directly affects redox balance, cytoskeletal organisation, and stress responses (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009; Mathur et al. 2014).”
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“…organization [33], regulation of organelle organization [34], peptidyl–amino acid modification [35], and regulation of translational initiation [36]—are fundamental to embryonic development, as they collectively govern early tissue patterning, organ formation, and genome regulatory dynamics…”
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Hexavalent chromium promotes malignant transformation via enhanced translation of SUV39H1
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“These proteins are key components in the realm of biological control in soil ecosystems (Sonenberg and Hinnebusch 2009; Zhou et al. 2015).”
IRES-based RNAs expressing co-stimulatory molecules: Promising candidates for cancer immunotherapy
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MARK2 regulates C9orf72 repeat–associated non-AUG translation
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“RAN translation is facilitated by phosphorylation of eIF2 α , a key event in the integrated stress response (ISR), typically mediated by kinases such as PKR, PERK, HRI, and GCN2 ( 4 ).”
TEDD: a comprehensive database for translation efficiency dynamics
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“The presence of the canonical 5′-m 7 G-cap is critical for recognition by m 7 G cap-binding proteins, including the nuclear cap-binding complex and eIF4E that facilitate ribosome loading for the pioneer round of translation and steady-state translation, respectively (31, 32).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Sonenberg, N., & Hinnebusch, A. G.
- Affiliations
- McGill University (CA)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Sonenberg, Nahum
- Hinnebusch, Alan G.
- Venue
- Cell
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-02
- Volume
- 136
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 731-745
- ISSN
- 0092-8674 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3610329
- OpenAlex
- W2037313242
- Cited by
- 3,304
- References
- 137
- Citations by year
- 2026: 145 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 166 · 2023: 194 · 2022: 187 · 2021: 219 · 2020: 208 · 2019: 204 · 2018: 211 · 2017: 240 · 2016: 199 · 2015: 188 · 2014: 212 · 2013: 212 · 2012: 222
- FWCI
- 14.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Cell (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship@McGill (McGill) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- National Institutes of Health (1ziahd001004-27, ZIA HD001004)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in cancer
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA Research and Splicing
- Keywords
- translation initiation, translational regulation, nutrient deprivation, stress response, nervous system function, aging, disease, mammalian cells
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Models, Molecular, Peptide Chain Initiation, Translational, Peptide Initiation Factors, Ribosomes
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