Can machines talk? Comparison of Eliza with modern dialogue systems
Open accessThe claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The anthropomorphic design of chatbots and virtual companions encourages users to attribute human-like intentionality and empathy to algorithms.
“the anthropomorphic design of chatbots and virtual companions encourages users to attribute human-like intentionality and empathy to algorithms, a dynamic reminiscent of the “ELIZA effect” described in early human-computer interaction literature [20,21].”
From Delusional Experiences Emerging From AI Chatbot Interactions or “AI Psychosis” (2025) · cites this paper as [21]
Section 3, “Eliza,” reports that users confided in Eliza and sought its empathy. The “Additional information” section also records a judge perceiving a modern chatbot as angry or happy. These passages support the empathy aspect, but the paper does not establish that anthropomorphic design causes users to attribute intentionality to chatbots and virtual companions generally; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
I.—COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE
TURING, A. M. (1950) · Mind · doi:10.1093/mind/lix.236.433 · Cited by 10,290 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Eliza’s questionanswer format can be said to follow Alan Turing’s viva voce, one-to-one direct questioning test to examine machine thinking (Turing, 1950).”
BackgroundComputing Machinery and Intelligence (1950)
Turing, A. M. (2004) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198250791.003.0017 · Cited by 6,120 · see citing works
ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine
Weizenbaum, J. (1966) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/365153.365168 · Cited by 4,452 · see citing works
ELIZA — a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine
Weizenbaum, J. (1983) · Communications of the ACM · doi:10.1145/357980.357991 · Cited by 2,765 · see citing works
Block, N. (1981) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184371 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
Wallace, R. S. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6710-5_13 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Colby, K. M., Weber, S., & Hilf, F. D. (1971) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0004-3702(71)90002-6 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Bringing Chatbots into education: Towards Natural Language Negotiation of Open Learner Models
Kerlyl, A., Hall, P., & Susan Bull, A. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-666-7_14 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Bringing chatbots into education: Towards natural language negotiation of open learner models
Kerly, A., Hall, P., & Susan Bull, A. (2006) · Knowledge-Based Systems · doi:10.1016/j.knosys.2006.11.014 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Epstein, R., Roberts, G., & Beber, G. (2008) · DIAL (Catholic University of Leuven) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6710-5 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Intelligent Machinery, A Heretical Theory*
Turing, A. M. (1996) · Philosophia Mathematica · doi:10.1093/philmat/4.3.256 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Colby, K. M., Hilf, F. D., Weber, S., & KRAEMER, H. C. (1972) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0004-3702(72)90049-5 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Floridi, L., Taddeo, M., & Turilli, M. (2008) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-008-9130-6 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Computer power and human reason
Shotwell, D. A. (1983) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/proc.1983.12692 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Evaluating the language resources of chatbots for their potential in English as a second language
Coniam, D. (2008) · ReCALL · doi:10.1017/s0958344008000815 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Language dominance in interpersonal deception in computer-mediated communication
Zhou, L., Burgoon, J. K., Zhang, D., & Nunamaker, J. F. (2003) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(03)00051-7 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Can psychiatrists distinguish a computer simulation of paranoia from the real thing?
Heiser, J. F., Colby, K. M., Faught, W. S., & Parkison, R. C. (1979) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3956(79)90008-6 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Bots, Babes and the Californication of CommercePreprint
Kerr, I. R. (2005) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Vallverdú, J., & Casacuberta, D. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-354-8 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationRapaport, W. J. (2005) · Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/089120105774321127 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
The Turing test: verbal behavior as the hallmark of intelligence
Editor, S. S., & Rapaport, W. J. (2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-3470 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Testing Turing's five minutes, parallel‐paired imitation game
Shah, H., & Warwick, K. (2010) · Kybernetes · doi:10.1108/03684921011036178 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationHuman misidentification in Turing tests
Warwick, K., & Shah, H. (2014) · Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1080/0952813x.2014.921734 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationHidden Interlocutor Misidentification in Practical Turing Tests
Shah, H., & Warwick, K. (2010) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-010-9219-6 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationSome Implications of a Sample of Practical Turing Tests
Warwick, K., Shah, H., & Moor, J. H. (2013) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-013-9301-y · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationGood Machine Performance in Turing's Imitation Game
Warwick, K., & Shah, H. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games · doi:10.1109/tciaig.2013.2283538 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of lying in practical Turing tests
Warwick, K., & Shah, H. (2014) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-013-0534-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationChatterbox Challenge as a Test-Bed for Synthetic Emotions
Vallverdú, J., Shah, H., & Casacuberta, D. (2010) · International Journal of Synthetic Emotions · doi:10.4018/jse.2010070102 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationFrom the Buzzing in Turing’s Head to Machine Intelligence Contests
Shah, H., & Warwick, K. (2010) · CentAUR (University of Reading) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationAssumption of knowledge and the Chinese Room in Turing test interrogation
Warwick, K., & Shah, H. (2014) · AI Communications · doi:10.3233/aic-140601 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Turing Hub as a Standard for Turing Test Interfaces
Garner, R. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6710-5_19 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Creating Synthetic Emotions through Technological and Robotic Advancements
Vallverdú, J. (2012) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-1595-3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationShah, H., & Warwick, K. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-354-8.ch017 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationConversation Simulation and Sensible Surprises
Hutchens, J. L. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6710-5_20 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Turing's misunderstood imitation game and IBM Watson's success
Shah, H. (2011) · CentAUR (University of Reading) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationChatterbox Challenge 2005: Geography of the Modern Eliza
Shah, H. (2006) · doi:10.5220/0002504301330138 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Social Psychology of Dialogue Simulation as Applied in Elbot
Roberts, F. S. (2014) · International Journal of Synthetic Emotions · doi:10.4018/ijse.2014070103 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Bade, D. (2012). Sign unsigned and meanings not meant: linguistic theory and hypothetical, simulated, imitation and meaningless language. Language Sciences, Vol. 34, pp. 361-375
- Epstein, G. Roberts & G. Beber, Parsing the Turing : Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer', p. 359-376. Springer. Crime Stoppers (2013). Identity Theft and Financial Fraud. Retrieved from: http://www.crimestoppers-uk.org/fraud/types-of-fraud/online-fraud/identity-theft-and-fraud?gclid=CLfo_b2o77UCFUbMtAodUnIAYg 9.3.13; 22:11
- Demchenko, E. & Veselov, V. (2008). Who Fools Whom? The Great Mystification, or Methodological Issues in Making Fools of Human Beings. In (Eds) R. Epstein, G. Roberts & G. Beber, Parsing the Turing : Philosophical and Methodological Issues in the Quest for the Thinking Computer, p447-459. Springer Elbot (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.elbot.com/chatterbot-elbot/ 8.3.13 Pre-publication version. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.004
- Link, D. (2013). There Must be an Angel: on the beginnings of the Arithmetic of Rays. The Rutherford Journal, Volume 5 (forthcoming). http://www.rutherfordjournal.org/ Loebner Prize (2014). Home of the Loebner Prize for Artificial Intelligence.
- S.B. Cooper & J. van Leeuwen, Alan Turing: His Work and Impact, Part III Building a brain: intelligent machines, practice and theory, pp. 614-620. Elsevier: Oxford.
- Shah, H. and Pavlika, V. (2005). Text-based Dialogical Q-Query Systems: Gimmick or Convenience. Proceedings of the 10 th International Conference on Speech and Computers (SPECOM), Patras, Greece, October 17-19, ISBN: 5-7452-0110-X, Vol. II pp 425-428,
- Shah, H., Warwick, K., Bland, I.M., Chapman, C.D., and Allen, M. (2012). Turing's Imitation Game: Role of Error-making in Intelligent Thought. Turing in Context II, Brussels 10-12 October, available here: https://www.academia.edu/1916866/Turing_s_Imitation_Game_Role_of_Error- making_in_Intelligent_Thought
- Shah, H., and Warwick, K. (2007). Constraining Random Dialogue in Modern Eliza, in (Schmidt C.T.A., 2007). Computers and Philosophy, an International Conference, Proceedings, 3-5 May 2006
- Laval France, EOARD/LIUM/AAAI/IEEE/UNESCO, London: EOARD, pp. 247-265.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Araujo, T. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.051 · Cited by 1,156 · see citing works
Chatbots: History, technology, and applications
Adamopoulou, E., & Moussiades, L. (2020) · Machine Learning with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.mlwa.2020.100006 · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
Brandtzaeg, P. B., & Følstad, A. (2017) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70284-1_30 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Teacher support and student motivation to learn with Artificial Intelligence (AI) based chatbot
Chiu, T. K. F., Moorhouse, B. L., Chai, C. S., & Ismailov, M. (2024) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2172044 · Cited by 707 · see citing works
Rediscovering the use of chatbots in education: A systematic literature review
Pérez, J. Q., Daradoumis, T., & Puig, J. M. M. (2020) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22326 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Chatbot learning partners: connecting learning experiences, interest and competence
Fryer, L. K., Nakao, K., & Thompson, A. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.023 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Predicting the intentions to use chatbots for travel and tourism
Melián-González, S., Gutiérrez-Taño, D., & Bulchand-Gidumal, J. (2021) · Current Issues in Tourism · doi:10.1080/13683500.2019.1706457 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Lee, Y.-F., Hwang, G.-J., & Chen, P.-Y. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10142-8 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Academic and Administrative Role of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Ahmad, S. F., Alam, M. M., Rahmat, M. K., Mubarik, M. S., & Hyder, S. I. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14031101 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
An Initial Model of Trust in Chatbots for Customer Service—Findings from a Questionnaire Study
Nordheim, C. B., Følstad, A., & Bjørkli, C. A. (2019) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwz022 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Chatbots to Support Young Adults’ Mental Health: An Exploratory Study of Acceptability
Koulouri, T., Macredie, R. D., & Olakitan, D. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1145/3485874 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Delusional Experiences Emerging From AI Chatbot Interactions or “AI Psychosis”
Hudon, A., & Stip, E. (2025) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/85799 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“As an example, the anthropomorphic design of chatbots and virtual companions encourages users to attribute human-like intentionality and empathy to algorithms, a dynamic reminiscent of the “ELIZA effect” described in early human-computer interaction literature [20,21].”
- Authors
- Shah, H., Warwick, K., Vallverdú, J., & Wu, D.
- Affiliations
- Coventry University (GB)
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
- Jimei University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Shah, Huma
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-05
- Volume
- 58
- Pages
- 278-295
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2275716005
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 9.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Coventry University Open Collections (Coventry university) (submittedVersion)
- Pure (Coventry University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- The Open Collections (Coventry University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Coventry University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech and dialogue systems
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI in Service Interactions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Keywords
- Eliza, natural language understanding, chatbots, virtual assistants, e-commerce, chatbot evaluation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
