Obsessive-Compulsive and Tic-Related Disorders
Open accessAbstract
This article presents an overview of the existing, as well as newly developed, cognitive behavior therapy methods for treating the child anxiety triad (separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and social phobia). For each disorder of the triad, the authors review diagnostic criteria, clinical presentation, disorder-specific treatment methods and innovations, and future directions for research.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
About 22% of pediatric OCD cases have a comorbid tic disorder.
“About 22% of pediatric OCD cases have a comorbid tic disorder [3]”
From Altered Error Monitoring and Decreased Flanker Task Accuracy in Pediatric Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (2026) · cites this paper as [3]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication
Ruscio, A. M., Stein, D. J., Chiu, W. T., & Kessler, R. C. (2010) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2008.94 · Cited by 2,771 · see citing works
Children's Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: Reliability and Validity
SCAHILL, L., RIDDLE, M. A., McSWIGGIN-HARDIN, M., ORT, S. I., KING, R. A., GOODMAN, W. K., CICCHETTI, D., & LECKMAN, J. F. (1997) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-199706000-00023 · Cited by 2,045 · see citing works
Abnormal and normal obsessions
Rachman, S., & de Silva, P. (1978) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(78)90022-0 · Cited by 1,160 · see citing works
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in Adolescence: An Epidemiological Study
FLAMENT, M. F., WHITAKER, A., RAPOPORT, J. L., DAVIES, M., BERG, C. Z., KALIKOW, K., SCEERY, W., & SHAFFER, D. (1988) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/00004583-198811000-00018 · Cited by 684 · see citing works
Psychological treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis
Rosa-Alcázar, A. I., Sánchez-Meca, J., Gómez-Conesa, A., & Marín-Martínez, F. (2008) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.07.001 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Twohig, M. P., Hayes, S. C., Plumb, J. C., Pruitt, L. D., Collins, A. B., Hazlett-Stevens, H., & Woidneck, M. R. (2010) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020508 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Adults with early-onset obsessive-compulsive disorder
do Rosario-Campos, M. C., Leckman, J. F., Mercadante, M. T., Shavitt, R. G., Prado, H. D. S., Sada, P., Zamignani, D., & Miguel, E. C. (2001) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.11.1899 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
Abramowitz, J. S. (1996) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(96)80045-1 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Franklin, M. E., Sapyta, J., Freeman, J. B., Khanna, M., Compton, S., Almirall, D., Moore, P., Choate-Summers, M., Garcia, A., Edson, A. L., et al. (2011) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1344 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Self-citationFerrão, Y. A., Miguel, E., & Stein, D. J. (2009) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.008 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 85
- [4]Piacentini J Woods DW Scahill L Behavior therapy for children with tourette disorder: A randomized controlled trial JAMA 2010 303 1929 37 20483969 PMC2993317
- [5]Woods DW Piacentini J Chang S Managing tourette syndrome: a behavioral intervention for children and adults New York Oxford University Press 2008
- [6]Woods D Himle M Miltenberger R Durability, negative impact, and neuropsychological predictors of tic suppression in children with chronic tic disorder J Abnorm Child Psychol 2008 36 2 237 45 17717739
- [8]March JS Mulle K OCD in children and adolescents: a cognitive-behavioral treatment manual New York The Guilford Press 1998
- [10]Valleni-Basille LA Garrison CZ Jackson KL Frequency of obsessive compulsive disorder in a community sample of young adolescents J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994 33 782 91 8083134
- [12]Piacentini J Bergman RL Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children PsychiatrClin North Am 2000 23 519 33 10986725
- [13]Piacentini J Bergman RL Keller M Functional impairment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder J Child AdolescPsychopharmacol 2003 13 S61 9 12880501
- [14]Swedo SE Rapoport JL Leonard HL Obsessive-compulsive disorder and children and adolescents: Clinical phenomenology of 70 consecutive cases Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989 46 335 41 2930330
- [15]Kessler RC Chiu WT Demler O Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12 month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005 62 617 27 15939839 PMC2847357
- [16]American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Edition), Text Revision DC American Psychiatric Association 2000
- [17]Foa EB Kozak MJ Goodman WK Hollander E DSM-IV field trial: Obsessive compulsive disorder Am J Psychiatry 1995 152 90 6 7802127
- [18]Crye J Laskey B Cartwright-Hatton S Non-clinical obsessions in a young adolescent population: Frequency and association with metacognitive variables PsycholPsychother 2010 83 15 26 19744358
- [22]Rasmussen SA Eisen JL Epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder J Clin Psychiatry 1990 51 10 13 2404965
- [24]DeVeaugh-Geiss J Moroz G Biederman J Clomipramine hydrochloride in childhood and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder—a multicenter trial J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992 31 45 9 1537780
- [25]Franklin ME Foa EB Treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder Annu Rev ClinPsychol 2011 7 229 43 21443448
- [26]Swedo SE Leonard HL Garvey M Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: Clinical description of the first 50 cases Am J Psychiatry 1998 155 264 71 9464208
- [27]Murray CJ Lopez AD Global health statistics Cambridge, MA Harvard University Press 1996
- [28]Skoog G Skoog I A 40 year follow up of patients with obsessive compulsive disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999 56 121 127 10025435
- [30]National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) Obsessive compulsive disorder: Core interventions in the treatment of obsessive—compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder 2005 21834191
- [32]Barret P Healey-Farrell A March JS Cognitive-behavioral family treatment of childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder: A controlled trial JAMA 2004 43 46 62 14691360
- [33]Bolton D Perin S Evaluation of exposure with response-prevention for obsessive compulsive disorder in children and adolescence J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2008 39 11 22 17207457
- [34]Freeman JB Garcia AM Coyne L Ale C Przeworski A Himle M Compton S Leondard HL Early childhood OCD: Preliminary findings from a family-based cognitive-behavioral approach JAMA 2008 47 593 602 PMC2820297 18356758
- [35]Storch EA Lack CW Simons LE A measure of functional impairment in youth with tourette's syndrome J PediatrPsychol 2007 32 950 9 17522110
- [36]Watson HJ Rees CS Meta-analysis of randomized, controlled treatment trials for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008 49 489 498 18400058
- [37]Williams TI Salkovskis PM Forrester L Turner S White H Allsopp MA A randomised controlled trial of cognitive behavioural treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2010 19 449 456 19921305
- [38]Piacentini J Bergman RL Chang S Controlled comparison of family cognitive behavioral therapy and psychoeducation/relaxation training for child obsessive-compulsive disorder J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2011 50 1149 61 22024003 PMC3205429
- [39]Franklin ME Kozak MJ Cashman LA Coles ME Rheingold AA Foa EB Cognitive-behavioral treatment of pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open clinical trial J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1998 37 412 419 9549962
- [40]Storch EA Geffken GR Merlo LJ Mann G Duke D Munson M Adkins J Grabill KM Murphy TK Goodman WK Family-based cognitive-behavioral therapy for pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: Comparison of intensive and weekly approaches J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007 46 469 478 17420681
- [41]Whiteside SP Brown AM Abramowitz JS Five-day intensive treatment for adolescent OCD: A case series J Anxiety Disord 2008 22 495 504 17543497
- [43]Foa EB Kozac MJ Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information Psychol Bull 1986 99 20 35 2871574
- [44]Khalifa N von Knorring AL Prevalence of tic disorders and tourette syndrome in a Swedish school population Dev Med Child Neurol 2003 45 31531 9 12729145
- [45]Robertson MM The prevalence and epidemiology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome part 1: the epidemiological and prevalence studies J Psychosom Med 2008 65 461 472 18940377
- [46]Bloch MH Peterson BS Scahill L Adulthood outcome of tic and obsessive-compulsive symptom severity In children with tourette syndrome Arch PediatrAdolesc Med 2006 160 65 9 PMC2291298 16389213
- [47]Leckman JF Zhang H Vitale A Course of tic severity in tourette syndrome: The first two decades Pediatrics 1998 102 14 9 9651407
- [48]Pappert EJ Goetz CG Louis ED Objective assessments of longitudinal outcome in gilles de la tourette's syndrome Neurology 2003 61 936 940 14557563
- [49]Kompoliti K Goetz CG Hyperkinetic movement disorders misdiagnosed tics in gilles de la tourette syndrome MovDisord 2008 13 477 80 9613740
- [50]Banaschewski T Woerner W Rothenberger A Premonitory sensory phenomena and suppressibility of tics in tourette syndrome: Developmental aspects in children and adolescents Dev Med Child Neurol 2003 45 700 3 14515942
- [51]Kwak C Vuong KD Jankovic J Premonitory sensory phenomenon in tourette's syndrome MovDisord 2003 18 1530 3 14673893
- [52]Cohen AJ Leckman JF Sensory phenomena associated with gilles de la tourette's syndrome J Clin Psychiatry 1992 53 319 23 1517194
- [53]Leckman JF Walker DE Cohen DJ Premonitory urges in tourette's syndrome Am J Psychiatry 1993 150 98 102 8417589
- [54]Woods DW Piacentini J Himle MB Chang S Premonitory Urge for Tics Scale (PUTS): initial psychometric results and examination of the premonitory urge phenomenon in youths with Tic disorders J Dev Behav Pediatr 2005 26 397 403 16344654
- [55]Lin H Yeh C Peterson BS Assessment of symptom exacerbations in a longitudinal study of children with tourette's syndrome or obsessive compulsive disorder J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2002 41 1070 7 12218428
- [56]Robertson MM Banerjee S Kurlan RR The tourette syndrome diagnostic confidence index: Developmental and clinical associations Neurology 1999 53 2108 12 10599790
- [57]Comings DE Comings BG Tourette syndrome: Clinical and psychological aspects of 250 cases Am J Hum Genet 1985 37 435 45 3859204 PMC1684588
- [58]Freeman RD Fast DK Burd L An international perspective on tourette syndrome: Selected findings from 3500 individuals in 22 countries Dev Med Child Neurol 2000 42 436 47 10972415
- [59]Janik P Kalbarczyk Sitek M Clinical analysis of gilles de la tourette syndrome based on 126 cases Neurol Neurochir Pol 2007 41 381 7 18033637
- [60]Lees AJ Robertson M Trimble MR A clinical study of gilles de la tourette syndrome in the United Kingdom J NeurolNeurosurg Psychiatry 1984 47 1 8 PMC1027633 6582230
- [61]Conelea CA Woods DW The influence of contextual factors on tic expression in tourette's syndrome: A review J Psychosom Res 2008 65 487 96 18940379
- [62]Findley DB Leckman JF Katsovich L Lin Development of the Yale Children's Global Stress Index (YCGSI) and its application in children and adolescents with tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003 42 450 7 12649632
- [63]Hoekstra PJ Anderson GM Limburg PC Neurobiology and neuroimmunology of tourette's syndrome: An update Cell Mol Life Sci 2004 61 886 98 15095010 PMC11138643
- [64]Silva RR Munoz DM Barickman J Environmental factors and related fluctuation of symptoms in children and adolescents with tourette's disorder J Child Psychiatry 1995 36 305 12 7759592
- [65]Storch EA Merlo LJ Lack C Quality of life in youth with tourette's syndrome and chronic tic disorder J Clin Child AdolescPsychol 2007 36 216 27 17484694
- [66]Champion LM Fulton WA Shady GA Tourette syndrome and social functioning in a Canadian population NeurosciBiobehav Rev 1988 12 255 7 3226650
- [67]Elstner KK Selai CE Trimble MR Quality of life (QOL) of patients with gilles de la tourette's syndrome ActaPsychiatrScand 2001 103 52 9 11202129
- [68]Lin H Katsovich L Ghebremichael M Psychosocial stress predicts future symptom severities in children and adolescents with tourette syndrome and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2007 48 157 66 17300554 PMC3073143
- [69]Packer LE Tic-related school problems: Impact on functional accommodations and interventions BehavModif 2005 29 876 99 16204421
- [70]Stokes A Bawden HN Camfield PR Peer problem in tourette's disorder Pediatrics 1991 87 936 42 2034503
- [71]Marcks BA Woods DW Ridosko JL The effects of trichotillomania disclosure on peer perceptions and social acceptability Body Image 2005 2 299 306 18089196
- [73]Bawden HN Stokes A Camfield CS Peer relationship problems in children with tourette's disorder or diabetes mellitus J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1998 39 663 8 9690930
- [74]Cooper C Robertson MM Livingston G Psychological morbidity and caregiver burden in parents of children with tourette's disorder and psychiatric comorbidity J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003 42 1370 5 14566175
- [75]Hubka GB Fulton WA Shady GA Tourette syndrome: Impact on Canadian family functioning NeurosciBiobehav Rev 1988 12 259 61 3226651
- [76]Deckersbach T Rauch S Buhlmann U Wilhelm S Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy in tourette's disorder: A randomized controlled trial and predictors of treatment response Behav Res Ther 2006 44 1079 1099 16259942
- [77]Wilhelm S Deckersbach T Coffey BJ Bohne A Peterson AL Baer L Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy for tourette's disorder: A randomized controlled trial Am J Psychiatry 2003 160 1175 1177 12777279
- [78]Piacentini J Chang S Behavioral treatments for Tourette syndrome and tic disorders Cohen DJ Jankcovicz J Goetz CG Advances in neurology, vol 85, tourette syndrome Philadelphia Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins 2001 319 32 11530440
- [79]Coffey BJ Miguel EC Biederman J Tourette's disorder with and without obsessive-compulsive disorder in adults: Are they different? J NervMent Dis 1998 186 201 6 9569887
- [80]Lewin AB Chang S McCracken J Comparison of clinical features among youth with tic disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and both conditions Psychiatry Res 2010 178 317 322 20488548 PMC2902642
- [81]Mansueto CS Keuler DJ Tic or compulsion?: It's tourettic OCD BehavModif 2005 29 784 99 16046664
- [82]Miguel EC Coffey BJ Baer L Phenomenology of intentional repetitive behaviors in obsessive-compulsive disorder and tourette's disorder J Clin Psychiatry 1995 56 246 55 7775367
- [83]Miguel EC Baer L Coffey BJ Phenomenological differences appearing with repetitive behaviours in obsessive-compulsive disorder and gilles de la tourette's syndrome Br J Psychiatry 1997 170 140 5 9093502
- [84]Miguel EC do Rosario-Campos MC Prado HS Sensory phenomena in obsessive-compulsive disorder and tourette's disorder J Clin Psychiatry 2000 61 150 6 10732667
- [85]Scahill LD Leckman JF Marek KL Sensory phenomena in tourette's syndrome Adv Neurology 1995 65 273 280 7872145
- [86]Shapiro AK Shapiro E Evaluation of the reported association of obsessive compulsive symptoms or disorder with tourette's disorder Compr Psychiatry 1992 33 152 65 1591906
- [87]Freeman RD Tourette Syndrome International Database Consortium Tic disorders and ADHD: answers from a world-wide clinical dataset on tourette syndrome Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2007 16 536 17665279
- [88]King RA Leckman JF Scahill LD Obsessive-compulsive disorder, anxiety, and depression Leckman JF Cohen DJ Tourette's syndrome tics, obsessions, compulsions: developmental psychopathology and clinical care New York John Wiley & Sons 1998 43 62
- [89]Termine C Balottin U Rossi G Psychopathology in children and adolescents with Tourette's syndrome: A controlled study Brain Dev 2006 28 69 75 15967616
- [90]Pauls DL Towbin KD Leckman Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986 43 1180 2 3465280
- [91]Leckman JF Walker DE Goodman WK “Just-right” perceptions associated with compulsive behavior in Tourette's syndrome Am J Psychiatry 1994 151 675 80 8166308
- [92]Holzer JC Goodman WK McDougle CJ Obsessive-compulsive disorder with and without a chronic tic disorder: a comparison of symptoms in 70 patients Br J Psychiatry 1994 164 469 73 8038934
- [93]Leckman JF Goodman WK Anderson GM Cerebrospinal fluid biogenic amines in obsessive compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and healthy controls Neuropsychopharmacology 1995 12 73 86 7766289
- [95]Zohar AH Pauls DL Ratzoni G Obsessive-compulsive disorder with and without tics in an epidemiological sample of adolescents Am J Psychiatry 1997 154 274 6 9016283
- [96]Cath DC Spinhovern P van de Wetering BJ The relationship between types and severity of repetitive behaviors in Gilles de la Tourette's disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder J Clin Psychiatry 2000 61 505 13 10937609
- [98]Thibert AL Day HI Sandor P Self-concept and self-consciousness in adults with tourette's syndrome Can J Psychiatry 1995 40 35 9 7874673
- [99]Verdellen CW Keijsers GP Cath DC Exposure with response prevention versus habit reversal in tourette's syndrome: A controlled study Behav Res Ther 2004 42 501 511 15033497
- [100]Himle JA Fischer DJ Van Etten ML Janeck AS Hannah GL Group behavioral therapy for adolescents with tic-related and non-tic-related obsessive-compulsive disorder Depression and Anxiety 2003 17 73 77 12621595
- [101]Franklin ME Tolin DF Treating Trichotillomania: Cognitive behavioral therapy for hair pulling and related problems New York Springer Science and Business Media 2007
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Peralta, V., & Cuesta, M. J. (2017) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbx089 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Obsessive‐compulsive disorder in the DSM‐5.
Abramowitz, J. S., & Jacoby, R. J. (2014) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12076 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Leveraging cognitive neuroscience for making and breaking real-world habits
Buabang, E. K., Donegan, K. R., Rafei, P., & Gillan, C. M. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.10.006 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hanna, G. L., Liu, Y., Rentschler, L. G., Hanna, B. S., Arnold, P. D., & Gehring, W. J. (2026) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01711-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hanna, G., Liu, Y., Rentschler, L., Hanna, B., Arnold, P., & Gehring, W. (2024) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3943784/v1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
- Authors
- Franklin, M. E., Harrison, J. P., & Benavides, K. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Franklin, Martin E.
- Venue
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-07
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 555-571
- ISSN
- 1056-4993 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3401067
- OpenAlex
- W2008000215
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 4 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 0.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH055126, R01MH079377)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- cognitive behavioral therapy, separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, diagnostic criteria, clinical features, treatment options
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Diagnosis, Differential, Humans, Implosive Therapy, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Tic Disorders, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Prevalence, Age of Onset
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review