The DOI matches its Crossref record; 32 of the 32 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 2 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cross-Sectional Studies
Open accessAbstract
Cross-sectional studies are observational studies that analyze data from a population at a single point in time. They are often used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and describe features of a population. Unlike other types of observational studies, cross-sectional studies do not follow individuals up over time. They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct. They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study. This article reviews the essential characteristics, describes strengths and weaknesses, discusses methodological issues, and gives our recommendations on design and statistical analysis for cross-sectional studies in pulmonary and critical care medicine. A list of considerations for reviewers is also provided.
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In the paper
“Prevalenceincidence bias (also called the Neyman bias) is also particularly common in cross-sectional studies.13”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [13] Tripepi, 2010, Selection bias and information bias in clinical research, Nephron Clin Pract source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They cannot be used to look at individual change (as in a cohort study).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the outcome and exposure variables are measured at the same time, it is relatively difficult to establish causal relationships from a cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The exposures and outcomes are measured simultaneously; therefore, it is difficult to determine whether the exposures preceded or followed the outcomes in an analytical cross-sectional study.”
- Also stated in: § Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > General Overview of Cross-Sectional Study Design
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, repeated cross-sectional studies can be used for analyzing population changes over time (also known as aggregate change over time).”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Description of Subtypes of Cross-Sectional Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“If one wants to compare two prevalence rates in an analytical cross-sectional study, the commonly used sample size formula is the same as is used when designing a cohort study.6”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6] Fleiss, 2013
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike studies starting from a series of patients, cross-sectional studies often need to select a sample of subjects from a large and heterogeneous study population.Thus, they are susceptible to sampling bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The subjects are neither deliberately exposed nor treated; thus, there are seldom ethical difficulties.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
- It may state two separate claims as one. 3
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stepwise selection methods and P value-based criteria are discouraged due to overfitting and because they often allow too many parameters to be included, which reduces the generalizability of the model.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Confounding could result in a distortion of the association between exposure and outcome.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Confounding
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the sample size in a descriptive study does not depend on statistical power because this concept only applies to statistical comparisons.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Sample Size Determination
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
“Unable to measure the incidence”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Benefits and Downside of Cross-Sectional Studies
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Also stated in: § 1. The study population and the research question. · plain
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only with full and transparent reporting of information on all aspects of a cross-sectional study can potential usefulness of its findings and risk of bias be adequately assessed.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Additional information
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because exposure and outcome are measured simultaneously in a cross-sectional study, prior knowledge of the condition might influence the ascertainment of the exposure or the outcome, which results in recall bias.”
§ Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths, Weaknesses, and Recommendations > Bias
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are usually quick and inexpensive to conduct.
“They are usually inexpensive and easy to conduct.”
“The main strength of cross-sectional studies is that they are relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.
“They are the best way to determine the prevalence and can study the associations of multiple exposures and outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.
“They are useful for establishing preliminary evidence in planning a future advanced study.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.
“They are suitable for generating hypotheses and may provide information about the prevalence of outcomes and exposures that informs other study designs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.
“Using questionnaires to reach a large sample of the population of interest is relatively inexpensive but can result in low response rates.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.
“Interviews are more expensive and time-consuming than using questionnaires, potentially limiting the sample size but leading to a higher response rate.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional studies cannot study rare diseases.
“The weaknesses of cross-sectional studies include the inability to assess incidence, to study rare diseases, and to make a causal inference.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Probability sampling methods are more accurate and rigorous than nonprobability sampling methods.
“In general, probability sampling methods are preferred over nonprobability ones, as the former are considered to be more accurate and rigorous.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Nonresponse bias is usually encountered in cross-sectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.
“A common type of selection bias is the nonresponse bias, which is usually encountered in crosssectional survey studies with mailed questionnaires.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.
“Recall bias and detection bias are two common information biases.”
Citations
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“Second, because this was a secondary data analysis, causal inferences cannot be established (48), and the associations identified may be difficult to interpret (84).”
Younes, R. S., Ziade, C., Moukarzel, C., & Abboud Mzawak, M. (2026) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci15080497 · Cited by 1
Tucker, J., Turner, B., Harrison, A., et al. (2026) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1007/s11136-026-04360-3 · Cited by 1
Chemutai, L., Kibirige, R., Lutalo, B., et al. (2026) · African Quarterly Social Science Review · doi:10.51867/aqssr.3.3.39 · Cited by 1
Wu, Y., Luo, Z., Huang, F., Rao, K., Fan, J., Lin, C., Li, H., & Wang, A. (2026) · Nurse Educator · doi:10.1097/nne.0000000000002296 · Cited by 1
Tian, W., Mu, X., Song, S., et al. (2026) · Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2026.102772 · Cited by 1
Prevalence of Alcohol Consumption among Indian Female Adolescents
Ahmad, S. (2021) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07347324.2021.2004963 · Cited by 1
“…such as ease to conduct (Wang & Cheng, 2020), and it allows to compare different variables (Mann, 2003), but cross-sectional studies lack the opportunity for analyzing behavior over a period of time and also are not helpful in determining cause and effects (Setia, 2016; Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
BackgroundEnhancing Impact Materiality: Lessons from Evidenced-Based Policy Making
Nicholls, A. J., & Yee, E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83152-3_13 · Cited by 1
Discrete choice experiments: An overview of experience to date in haemophilia
Spoors, J., Miners, A. H., & Cairns, J. (2022) · The Journal of Haemophilia Practice · doi:10.2478/jhp-2022-0006 · Cited by 1
Concentration on the relationship between periodontitis and dyslipidemia
Gomes‐Filho, I. S., Oliveira, M. T., da Cruz, S. S., et al. (2022) · Oral Diseases · doi:10.1111/odi.14329 · Cited by 1
Entrepreneurship a Misguided Quest: A Higher Education Review
Ssemugenyi, F., & Obsiye, F. A. (2022) · World Journal of Vocational Education and Training · doi:10.18488/119.v4i1.3131 · Cited by 1
“This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design that permits data collection at one point in time (Amin, 2005; James & Sally, 2006; Xiaofeng & Cheng, 2020).”
MethodPreparations for Saudi Pharmacist Licensure Examination
Alomi, Y. A., Alyami, N. R., Bahdailah, A. A., Almehmadi, S. A., Alsaab, J. S., Thubaiti, S. S. A., & Alghamdi, R. A. A. (2022) · Pharmacology Toxicology and Biomedical Reports · doi:10.5530/ptb.2022.8.17 · Cited by 1
Idemudia, E. S., Olawa, B. D., Wyatt, G. E., & Milburn, N. G. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health Promotion · doi:10.32604/ijmhp.2023.026852 · Cited by 1
Martins, M. D. D. S., Lemes, Í. R., Esposito, E., et al. (2023) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2022-0279 · Cited by 1
Enríquez, J. P., & Ader, D. (2023) · American Journal of Health Education · doi:10.1080/19325037.2023.2187485 · Cited by 2
“When used to produce preliminary evidence in a specific research area, cross-sectional study designs can considerably contribute to the literature by measuring the prevalence of health-related issues/outcomes and related factors.(34) An online cross-sectional survey was used to collect information regarding university…”
BackgroundMethodWang, C., Ji, L., Ren, D., Yuan, F., Liu, L., Bi, Y., Guo, Z., Yang, F., Xu, Y., Yu, S., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1104664 · Cited by 4
Effects of adopting mobile technologies on the managerial competencies of construction firms
Lesebo, T. J., Rambe, P., & Ndofirepi, T. M. (2023) · South African journal of information management · doi:10.4102/sajim.v25i1.1627 · Cited by 1
“While Wang and Cheng (2020) acknowledge that a cross-sectional study is relatively inexpensive and simple to conduct, its major flaws are that it does not allow researchers to conduct follow-ups with respondents over time to establish whether there are dynamic variations in the variables measured.”
BackgroundPre-service Science Teachers’ Conceptions of the Nature of Science
Wangchuk, S., Wangdi, D., Tshomo, S., et al. (2023) · Educational innovation and practice · doi:10.17102/eip.6.2023.02 · Cited by 1
Prevalence and Determinants of Tobacco Use in the Undergraduate Students of Nursing in Peshawar, KP
Munir, B., Karim, H., Rehman, W. U., Bano, N., Bibi, K., & Saeed, M. (2023) · Pakistan Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.54393/pjhs.v4i05.677 · Cited by 1
Lashaba, A. S., & Kule, J. W. (2023) · Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in Education · doi:10.59765/aiew150y · Cited by 1
RELIGION, TRUST IN GOVERNMENT AND COVID-19 VACCINE ACCEPTANCE IN AFRICA
Duah, E. (2023) · Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.52326/jss.utm.2023.6(2).11 · Cited by 1
Davies, M. (2023) · Journal of European Psychology Students · doi:10.59477/jeps.577 · Cited by 1
“This prior knowledge could influence their answer responses, resulting in potential recall bias (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
BackgroundBroomhall, A. G. (2023) · Routledge Open Research · doi:10.12688/routledgeopenres.17895.1 · Cited by 1
Ivančević, S., Maričić, M., & Vlastelica, T. (2023) · Communications · doi:10.1515/commun-2022-0095 · Cited by 1
Impact of Community-Level Infrastructure on Household Food Insecurity in Africa
Ọlábìyí, Ọ. M., & Adedokun, A. (2023) · Journal of Tropical Futures Sustainable Business Governance & Development · doi:10.1177/27538931231203062 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, the study ’ s cross-sectional nature means causality cannot be conclusively established (Wang and Cheng, 2020).”
BackgroundExploring ethnicity and personality disorder in a UK context: a scoping review of the literature
Lamph, G., Mulongo, P., Boland, P., Jeynes, T., King, C., Burrell, R.-R., Harris, C., & Shorrock, S. (2023) · Mental Health Review Journal · doi:10.1108/mhrj-12-2022-0075 · Cited by 1
Welas Asih Diri dan Gejala Gangguan Makan: Infleksibilitas Psikologis sebagai Mediator
A'anisah, R., & Bintari, D. R. (2023) · Psyche 165 Journal · doi:10.35134/jpsy165.v16i4.287 · Cited by 1
“Penelitian ini menggunakan desain cross-sectional dimana pengukuran hanya akan dilakukan satu kali dalam periode waktu penelitian [28].”
BackgroundEvidence-Based Medicine and Observational Studies
Meade, M., Buchan, L. J., Stark, M. M., & Woods, B. I. (2023) · Clinical Spine Surgery A Spine Publication · doi:10.1097/bsd.0000000000001550 · Cited by 1
Cen, Y., Feng, D., Kowsar, R., Cheng, Z., Luo, Y., & Xiao, Q. (2023) · Endocrine Research · doi:10.1080/07435800.2023.2280571 · Cited by 1
Self-citationThe Influence of Spirituality on Psychological Resilience and Recurrence in Hypertension Patients
Amir, F., Sulistyorini, L., & Hasinuddin, M. (2023) · Nursing and Health Sciences Journal (NHSJ) · doi:10.53713/nhsj.v3i4.309 · Cited by 4
“A cross-sectional approach can be used in this method by observing and collecting data on a population at one time without any intervention (Wang & Cheng, 2020).”
MethodAmir, F., Sulistyorini, L., Suhron, M., et al. (2023) · Health and Technology Journal (HTechJ) · doi:10.53713/htechj.v1i6.128 · Cited by 1
“A study explains a significant relationship between hypertension and a high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and the risk of death in sufferers (C. Wang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundKang, H. S., Kim, J. H., Kim, J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13010138 · Cited by 1
“However, the studies referenced are indeed cross-sectional in nature [23–26], and they do not encompass follow-up data [27].”
Dany, F., Adam, K., Handayani, S., et al. (2023) · Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine · doi:10.4103/1995-7645.391778 · Cited by 1
Collaboration between occupational health professionals in smoking cessation treatment and support
Malin, M., Luukkonen, R. A., Majuri, M., Lamminpää, A., & Reijula, K. E. (2023) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-230139 · Cited by 1
“Online surveys generally tend to have low response rates, often under 15% (nonresponse bias [56]).”
The Impacts of Achievement Goal Orientation and Academic Self-Efficacy on Academic Achievement
Minwei, S., & Amirrudin, S. (2023) · Higher Education and Oriental Studies · doi:10.54435/heos.v3i3.101 · Cited by 6
Crumlish, L., Copley, A., Wallace, S. J., & Rose, T. (2024) · Brain Impairment · doi:10.1071/ib23075 · Cited by 1
“This design was undertaken not only as a time-and cost-effective approach (Wang and Cheng 2020) but to also enable the convenient participation of a large number of geographically diverse respondents (Evans and Mathur 2005).”
BackgroundTour Company’s Service Quality and Tourists’ Revisit Intention in Arusha Region Tourist Destinations
Majaliwa, D., & Magasi, C. (2024) · Journal of Consumer Sciences · doi:10.29244/jcs.9.1.1-21 · Cited by 1
Salsabila, S., & Nurwianti, F. (2024) · Psyche 165 Journal · doi:10.35134/jpsy165.v17i1.323 · Cited by 1
Rezaei, S., Chehri, A., Hosseini, S. S., Arefi, M., & Amiri, H. (2024) · Iranian Journal Of Health Sciences · doi:10.32598/ijhs.12.1.978.1 · Cited by 1
Yi, Y., Li, G., Chen, T., Wang, P., & Luo, H. (2024) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su16062286 · Cited by 9
Taxing sugar-sweetened beverages: Knowledge, beliefs and where should the money go?
Moonesar, I. A., Al-Alawy, K., & Gaafar, R. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28226 · Cited by 2
“Cross-sectional studies are descriptive observational studies that capture current trends in prevalence, opinions, outcomes, and exposures and do not require prospective or retrospective follow-up [33].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, X., & Cheng, Z.
- Affiliations
- Cleveland Clinic (US)
- Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Wang, Xiaofeng
- Venue
- CHEST
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-07
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- S65-S71
- ISSN
- 0012-3692 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3039445169
- Cited by
- 2,214
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 636 · 2025: 638 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 282 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 90.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- CHEST Journal (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Research and Theory › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Keywords
- cross-sectional study, observational study design, prevalence, health determinants, methodological issues, statistical analysis, respiratory medicine, intensive care, research design recommendations, peer review
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Guidelines as Topic
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