Cited by 561Acne and Rosacea Treatments and EffectsDermatology and Skin DiseasesLipid metabolism and biosynthesis

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 85 of the 85 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Acne and sebaceous gland function

Zouboulis, Christos C.·2004·Clinics in Dermatology

DOI 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.03.004

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Abstract

The embryologic development of the human sebaceous gland is closely related to the differentiation of the hair follicle and the epidermis. The number of sebaceous glands remains approximately the same throughout life, whereas their size tends to increase with age. The development and function of the sebaceous gland in the fetal and neonatal periods appear to be regulated by maternal androgens and by endogenous steroid synthesis, as well as by other morphogens. The most apparent function of the glands is to excrete sebum. A strong increase in sebum excretion occurs a few hours after birth; this peaks during the first week and slowly subsides thereafter. A new rise takes place at about age 9 years with adrenarche and continues up to age 17 years, when the adult level is reached. The sebaceous gland is an important formation site of active androgens. Androgens are well known for their effects on sebum excretion, whereas terminal sebocyte differentiation is assisted by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ligands. Estrogens, glucocorticoids, and prolactin also influence sebaceous gland function. In addition, stress-sensing cutaneous signals lead to the production and release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone from dermal nerves and sebocytes with subsequent dose-dependent regulation of sebaceous nonpolar lipids. Among other lipid fractions, sebaceous glands have been shown to synthesize considerable amounts of free fatty acids without exogenous influence. Sebaceous lipids are responsible for the three-dimensional skin surface lipid organization. Contributing to the integrity of the skin barrier. They also exhibit strong innate antimicrobial activity, transport antioxidants to the skin surface, and express proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory properties. Acne in childhood has been suggested to be strongly associated with the development of severe acne during adolescence. Increased sebum excretion is a major factor in the pathophysiology of acne vulgaris. Other sebaceous gland functions are also associated with the development of acne, including sebaceous proinflammatory lipids; different cytokines produced locally; periglandular peptides and neuropeptides, such as corticotrophin-releasing hormone, which is produced by sebocytes; and substance P, which is expressed in the nerve endings at the vicinity of healthy-looking glands of acne patients. Current data indicate that acne vulgaris may be a primary inflammatory disease. Future drugs developed to treat acne not only should reduce sebum production and Propionibacterium acnes populations, but also should be targeted to reduce proinflammatory lipids in sebum, down-regulate proinflammatory signals in the pilosebaceous unit, and inhibit leukotriene B(4)-induced accumulation of inflammatory cells. They should also influence peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor regulation. Isotretinoin is still the most active available drug for the treatment of severe acne.

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Whang, S. W., Lee, S. E., Kim, J. M., Kim, H. J., Jeong, S. K., Zouboulis, C. C., Seo, J. T., & Lee, S. H. (2010) · Experimental Dermatology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01199.x · Cited by 16
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Topical retinoids for the treatment of acne vulgaris
Tzellos, T., Toulis, K. A., Dessinioti, C., Zampeli, V., Abdel‐Naser, M. B., Katsambas, A., Bauer, A., Gollnick, H. P. M., Thielitz, A., Franke, C., et al. (2013) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009470.pub2 · Cited by 16
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Management of Thick Skin in Rhinoplasty
Cobo, R., Patrocı́nio, L. G., Guyuron, B., & Swanson, M. A. (2024) · Facial Plastic Surgery Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.fsc.2024.06.004 · Cited by 15
State-of-the-Art in Skin Fluorescent Photography for Cosmetic and Skincare Research: From Molecular Spectra to AI Image Analysis
Chekanov, K., Danko, D., Tlyachev, T., Kiselev, K., Hagens, R., & Georgievskaya, A. (2024) · Life · doi:10.3390/life14101271 · Cited by 15
Expression of human neutrophil proteins in acne vulgaris
Adışen, E., Yüksek, J., Erdem, Ö., Aksakal, F. N., & Aksakal, A. B. (2009) · Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2009.03347.x · Cited by 15
Efficacy of topical cinnamon gel for the treatment of facial acne vulgaris: A preliminary study
Ghovvati, M., Afshari, G. K., Nasrollahi, S. A., Firooz, A., Samadi, A., Karimi, M., Talebi, Z., Kolahdooz, S., & Vazirian, M. (2019) · Biomedical Research and Therapy · doi:10.15419/bmrat.v6i1.515 · Cited by 16
Acneigenic Stimuli Converge in Phosphoinositol-3 Kinase/ Akt/Foxo1 Signal Transduction
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“These receptors modulate the production of inflammatory cytokines, proliferation, differentiation, lipogenesis and androgen metabolism in human sebocytes [58-61].”
Background
Whole-genome comparative analysis reveals genetic mechanisms of disease resistance and heat tolerance of tropical Bos indicus cattle breeds
Vijayakumar, P., Singaravadivelan, A., Mishra, A., Jagadeesan, K., Bakyaraj, S., Suresh, R., & Sivakumar, T. (2021) · Genome · doi:10.1139/gen-2021-0030 · Cited by 13
Influence of the Human Leukocyte Antigen Complex on the Development of Cutaneous Fibrosis: An Immunogenetic Perspective
Bayat, A., McCarty, S. K., & Syed, F. (2010) · Acta Dermato Venereologica · doi:10.2340/00015555-0975 · Cited by 14
“In addition, there is a greater abundance of sebaceous glands on the face, which often leads to acne formation, particularly during puberty (61).”
Occurrence of acne comedones over healed linear scar of herpes zoster: a neurogenic perception
Sardana, K., Relhan, V., Vn, S., Garg, V., & Am, K. (2006) · Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2006.01932.x · Cited by 14
Chemical methods for the detection of latent fingermarks
Frick, A. A., Fritz, P., & Lewis, S. W. (2015) · Forensic Chemistry · doi:10.1002/9781118897768.ch9 · Cited by 14
Sebaceous origins of human odor
Zung, J. L., & McBride, C. S. (2025) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2025.03.031 · Cited by 16
Effects of Moringa oleifera Seed Oil on Cultured Human Sebocytes In Vitro and Comparison with Other Oil Types
Zouboulis, C. C., Hossini, A. M., Hou, X., Wang, C., Weylandt, K. H., & Pietzner, A. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241210332 · Cited by 13
“Sebum contains a lipid mixture of triglycerides, squalene and wax esters, as well as cholesterol esters and possibly some free cholesterol, most of which are synthesized de novo by the sebaceous glands [13].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Sebaceous Gland Regeneration in Human Skin Xenografts
Eisinger, M., Li, W., Rossetti, D., Anthonavage, M., & Seiberg, M. (2010) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1038/jid.2010.122 · Cited by 13
“Sebaceous glands have been shown to contribute to many skin functions (reviewed in Zouboulis, 2004; Zouboulis et al., 2008), but also are involved in the pathology of acne and seborrhea.”
Background
Mustard vesicants alter expression of the endocannabinoid system in mouse skin
Wohlman, I. M., Composto, G. M., Heck, D. E., Heindel, N. D., Lacey, C. J., Guillon, C. D., Casillas, R. P., Croutch, C. R., Gerecke, D. R., Laskin, D. L., et al. (2016) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2016.04.014 · Cited by 13
“Mature, differentiated sebocytes produce sebum, while proliferating cells replenish terminally differentiated cells that have undergone apoptosis (Schneider et al., 2010; Zouboulis, 2004).”
Background
A novel chitosan/tripolyphosphate/L‐lysine conjugates for latent fingerprints detection and enhancement
Vučkovıć, N., Glođović, N., Radovanović, Ž., Janaćković, D. T., & Milašinović, N. Z. (2020) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14569 · Cited by 13
“Freshly deposited latent fingerprints consist of secretions of the eccrine (sweat), sebaceous, and apocrine glands [16,17].”
Background
Acne: Kids are not just little people
Que, S. K. T., Whitaker-Worth, D. L., & Chang, M. W. (2016) · Clinics in Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.07.005 · Cited by 13
Acne Syndromes and Mosaicism
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“It is theorized that androgens may play a permissive job in influencing acne development, or it may be the local overproduction of androgens in the skin that leads to acne [102].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Transcriptome Analysis of Particulate Matter 2.5-Induced Abnormal Effects on Human Sebocytes
Na, H.-W., Kim, H. S., Choi, H., Cha, N., Seo, Y. R., Hong, Y. D., & Kim, H.-J. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms231911534 · Cited by 12
“Estrogen (17β-estradiol) inhibited lipogenesis in the sebaceous glands [8].”
BackgroundInfluential
Efficacy and Safety of 1% Clascoterone Cream in Patients Aged > 12 Years With Acne Vulgaris
Hebert, A. A., Eichenfield, L. F., Thiboutot, D. M., Gold, L. S., Vassileva, S., Mihaylova, Y., Cartwright, M. M., Moro, L., Fragasso, E., Han, J. J., et al. (2023) · Journal of Drugs in Dermatology · doi:10.36849/jdd.7000 · Cited by 12
Skin problems following septorhinoplasty
Koc, E. A. O., Büyüklü, F., Koç, B., & Demırcı, G. T. (2014) · The Laryngoscope · doi:10.1002/lary.25073 · Cited by 12
“It has been previously reported that the surgical procedures involved in septorhinoplasty can cause stresses to the skin that lead to the release of corticotrophin-releasing hormones from sebocytes and dermal nerves, which in turn affect, in a dose-dependent manner, the production of sebaceous lipids.(7) There are sev…”
Background
Broad thermal capacity facilitates the primarily pelagic existence of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus)
Dalton, A., Rosen, D. A. S., & Trites, A. W. (2014) · Marine Mammal Science · doi:10.1111/mms.12103 · Cited by 12
“While the sebum composition is extremely species-specific (Zouboulis 2004) and an increased number of sebaceous glands does not necessarily equate to a greater volume of sebaceous secretions, this anatomical difference might explain why the northern fur seal has a broader TNZ than the sea otter.”
Background
Do tetracyclines and erythromycin exert anti‐acne effects by inhibition of P 450‐mediated degradation of retinoic acid?
Hellmann‐Regen, J., Herzog, I., Fischer, N., Heuser, I., & Regen, F. (2014) · Experimental Dermatology · doi:10.1111/exd.12358 · Cited by 14
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Dihydrotestosterone induces SREBP-1 expression and lipogenesis through the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway in HaCaT cells
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“Introduction Excessive secretion of sebum on skin is an important factor in various skin diseases, including acne and seborrheic dermatitis [1,2].”
Background
Serum YKL40: A novel potential link between inflammation and dyslipidemia in acne vulgaris
Ebrahim, A. A., Mustafa, A. I., El-Shimi, O. S., & Fathy, M. A. (2019) · Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology · doi:10.1111/jocd.13124 · Cited by 12
Differential and Overlapping Effects of Melatonin and Its Metabolites on Keratinocyte Function: Bioinformatics and Metabolic Analyses
Stefan, J., Kim, T., Schedel, F., Janjetović, Z., Crossman, D. K., Steinbrink, K., Slominski, R. M., Zmijewski, J. W., Tulić, M. K., Reiter, R. J., et al. (2021) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox10040618 · Cited by 12
“However, elevated sebum excretion with lipid content is a key factor involved in the acne pathology [50,51].”
Background
Adsorption of Organic Compounds Found in Human Sebum on Latvian Illitic, Kaolinitic, and Chloritic Phyllosilicates
Pūra, A., Jurgelāne, I., & Mālers, J. (2014) · Clays and Clay Minerals · doi:10.1346/ccmn.2014.0620604 · Cited by 12
“Acne patients are known to have greater sebum secretion rates than those without acne (Harris et al., 1983; Zouboulis, 2004; Pappas et al., 2009) and their sebum contains higher levels of squalene (Pappas et al., 2009).”
Background
New Insights Into Systemic Drivers of Inflammation and Their Contributions to the Pathophysiology of Acne
Rosso, J. Q. D., Farris, P. K., Harper, J. C., Baldwin, H. E., Hazan, A. T., & Raymond, I. (2024) · Journal of Drugs in Dermatology · doi:10.36849/jdd.8137 · Cited by 13
Propanediol (and) Caprylic Acid (and) Xylitol as a New Single Topical Active Ingredient against Acne: In Vitro and In Vivo Efficacy Assays
Mussi, L., Baby, A. R., Camargo, F. B., Padovani, G., Sufi, B. D. S., & Magalhães, W. V. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26216704 · Cited by 11
“Androgen hormones are responsible for activating the sebaceous glands in addition to regulating their function through binding to nuclear androgen receptors [29].”
Background
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Dry Eye Symptoms after Successful Dacryocystorhinostomy for Patients with Lacrimal Passage Obstruction
Jin, Y., Guo, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, Y., Qin, G., Tian, Y., & Li, X. (2021) · European Journal of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1177/11206721211069739 · Cited by 11
“For example, there is an age-related decrease in the quality and lipid profiles of meibomian gland secretions possibly due to atrophy of acinar cells,(25) in keeping with the age-related decline in the function of other sebaceous glands.(27) Our study observed that people with lower income and lower educational levels…”
Result
Most common patterns of acne in male adolescents: a population‐based study
Duquia, R. P., de Almeida, H. L., Breunig, J. D. A., Souzat, P. R. M., & Göellner, C. D. (2013) · International Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2011.05333.x · Cited by 11
A peel‐off facial mask comprising myoinositol and trehalose‐loaded liposomes improves adult female acne by reducing local hyperandrogenism and activating autophagy
Fabbrocini, G., Capasso, C., Donnarumma, M., Cantelli, M., Maître, M. L., Monfrecola, G., & Emanuele, E. (2017) · Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology · doi:10.1111/jocd.12340 · Cited by 11
Trans-resveratrol reduces visible signs of skin ageing in healthy adult females over 40: an 8-week randomized placebo-controlled trial
Rao, A., Briskey, D. R., Roche, G., Tremblay, A., Pinto, M. D. S., & Tompkins, T. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging · doi:10.3389/fragi.2025.1727244 · Cited by 10
“Sebum also contains compounds that have antimicrobial and pro-and anti-inflammatory functions, helping to regulate the activity of xenobiotics and can both repair and protect the skin (Zouboulis, 2004).”
Network pharmacology, transcriptomics, and biological validation reveal a lipid secretion inhibitory and anti-inflammatory mechanism of tanreqing gel in the treatment of acne
Ren, X., Zhou, N., Li, D., Lu, L., Wang, Y., Li, L., Ma, Y., Gao, X., Zhao, Y., Sun, Y., et al. (2024) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2024.119278 · Cited by 10
“Acne vulgaris: key insights, treatment, and future prospects”
Bhatt, J., Kumar, V. J., & Chahat (2025) · Molecular Diversity · doi:10.1007/s11030-025-11209-3 · Cited by 10
“Among the two types of 5α-reductases involved in converting active androgen, the type I isoform is primarily expressed in the sebaceous gland, sweat gland, and epidermis, and it is most active in facial skin and scalp [26].”
Metformin: Old Drug, New Therapeutic Potential in the Skin? A Brief Narrative Review
Pantazopoulos, D., Papachristou, S., Gouveri, E., Papi, M., Papazoglou, D., & Παπάνας, Ν. (2025) · Advances in Therapy · doi:10.1007/s12325-025-03256-x · Cited by 10
“These include excessive sebum production, abnormal shedding of keratinocytes within the sebaceous follicle, a localised inflammatory response, and the presence of Cutibacterium acnes [28].”
How lipidomics provides new insight into drug discovery
Lamazière, A., Wolf, C., & Quinn, P. J. (2014) · Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery · doi:10.1517/17460441.2014.914026 · Cited by 10
“Androgens also stimulate sebaceous glands [55], and surfactant production by type II alveolar cells is controlled by the balance of glucosteroids and androgens [56].”
Background
Investigation of the Association of the Second-to-Fourth Digit Ratio with Skin Sebum Levels in Females with Acne Vulgaris
Bilgiç, Ö., Altınyazar, C., Hıra, H., & Doğdu, M. (2015) · American Journal of Clinical Dermatology · doi:10.1007/s40257-015-0147-3 · Cited by 10
“Because of the prenatal androgen peak time period [14], the development of digits [22] and sebaceous glands [6] takes place during”
Background

Authors: Zouboulis, C. C.
Affiliations: Stiftung Charité (DE)
Corresponding author: Zouboulis, Christos C.
ORCID: Zouboulis, Christos C.
Venue: Clinics in Dermatology
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2004-09
Volume: 22
Issue: 5
Pages: 360-366
ISSN: 0738-081X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.03.004
OpenAlex: W2031661874
Cited by: 561
References: 85
Citations by year: 2026: 15 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 55 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 19
FWCI: 14.87
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Clinics in Dermatology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Acne and Rosacea Treatments and Effects
Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Dermatology and Skin Diseases
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biochemistry › Lipid metabolism and biosynthesis
Keywords: sebaceous glands, sebum production, androgens, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, sebaceous lipids, corticotropin-releasing factor, substance P, Propionibacterium acnes, skin barrier, epidermal differentiation, adrenarche
MeSH terms: Acne Vulgaris, Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Child, Dermatologic Agents, Humans, Neuropeptides, Sebaceous Glands, Sebum, Cytokines, Inflammation Mediators

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Acne and sebaceous gland function

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